GIFT  OF 
Professor  C.L.    Gory 


To 

an  untiring  worker  in  the  interest  of 
safety  of  life  at  sea 


Supervising  Inspector  General 
United  States  Steamboat  Inspection  Service 


s 


ffi     p, 


I  -s 

s  « 

C/3  C 

<u  O 


A  FOREWORD 


AMERICAN    MERCHANT   SEAMEN: 

Our  Government  calls  the  youth  of  the  land  to  serve  in  a 
romantic  occupation  that  abounds  in  glorious  traditions  of  valiant 
deeds  and  useful  service. 

Glorious  as  are  these  traditions,  there  never  has  been  a  time 
in  the  history  of  our  Country  when  the  work  of  our  seamen  was  of 
greater  value  to  the  welfare  of  our  nation  than  it  is  at  the  present 
time. 

Manned  by  a  personnel  of  unquestioned  allegiance,  our  Mer- 
chant Marine  will  attain  the  highest  standard  of  efficiency  and 
must  be  successful  in  defeating  the  aims  of  our  ruthless  foe. 

These  are  days  of  self  sacrifice  for  every  liberty-loving  Ameri- 
can. The  world  must  and  shall  be  made  free  that  future  genera- 
tions may  enjoy  the  blessings  of  liberty  and  you  of  course  realize 
the  important  part  the  seamen  of  our  Merchant  Marine  must  take 
to  bring  success  to  the  cause  of  democracy. 

To  win  the  war,  the  United  States  is  providing  ships  in  large 
numbers  to  offset  the  activities  of  the  enemy  submarines.  These 
ships  are  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  our  military  forces  on 
the  battlefield  and  to  furnish  supplies  to  our  allies. 

History  records  that  in  every  case  of  danger  to  our  nation,  our 
seamen  have  gallantly  responded  to  their  country's  call  without 
thought  of  personal  comfort  or  advantage.  A  great  task,  there- 
fore, devolves  upon  our  present  day  seamen  to  see  to  it  that  the 
glorious  traditions  of  their  predecessors  shall  remain  unsullied  and 
when  history  records  the  valiant  deeds  of  those  engaged  in  this 
great  struggle  for  democracy,  let  it  not  be  said  that  our  seamen 
failed  to  measure  up  to  their  full  duty. 


723392 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS   AND    GENERAL    INDEX. 

Page 

INTRODUCTION   3 

SAFETY  OF  LIFE  AT  SEA 

Life-boat    and    Life-raft    Equipment    7-13 

Line    Throwing    Guns    (Illustrated)     '. 13-14 

SEAMANSHIP 

Bell   Time   on    Shipboard    15 

To  Mark  a   Lead  Line    15 

How  to  Call  a  Cast  of  the  Lead   16 

The   Sounding   Machine    (Illustrated)     16-18 

Knots   and   Miles    19 

Steering    Orders 19 

Rules  of  the  Road  at  Sea   20-21 

Winds  and  Effect  on   Sound   Signals    22 

Wind    Force    (Beaufort's    Scale)     22-23 

Beaufort  Notation    (Disturbance   of   Sea    Surface)    23 

Boxing   of   Mariner's    Compass    23 

Watches  as  Compasses   23 

The    Mariner's    Compass    (Diagram) 24 

Tables  Showing  Degress  and  Fractions  of  Degrees    25 

Seizings,   Hitches,   Bends,   Splices,   Etc.    (Illustrated)    26-27 

Knots,    Bends    and    Splices    (Illustrated)     28-38 

Fancy   Knots    (Illustrated)     39-47 

Wire    Rigging     47 

Working   in   Wire    Rope    (Illustrated)     48-53 

Parts   of  a   Block    (Illustrated) 54 

Blocks   and    Tackles    (Illustrated) 55-57 

Strength  and  Weight  of  Manila  Rope   57 

SAILING  VESSELS 

The    "Cat"    Rig    (Illustrated)    5S 

The    "Sloop"    Rig    (Illustrated)    59 

The    "Cutter"   Rig    (Illustrated)    60 

Topsail    Schooner    (Illustrated)    61 

Brigantine    (Illustrated)     61 

Brig     (Illustrated)      61 

Schooner,    2    Mast    (Illustrated)     62 

Names  of  Spars,   Sails,   Etc.,   2  Mast  Schooner   63 

Bark-Sails    (Illustrated)     64 

Bark-Masts  and  Spars  (Illustrated)   65 

Four  Mast   Bark-Sails    (Illustrated)    66 

Five    Mast    Bark-Sails     (Illustrated)     67 

Full  Rig  Ship-Masts  and  Spars   (Illustrated)    68 

Full   Rig    Ship-Standing   Rigging    (Illustrated)     69 

Full    Rig    Ship-Running    Rigging    (Illustrated) 70 

Full   Rig   Ship-Sails    (Illustrated)    71 

Full  Rig  Ship- Staysails   (Illustrated)    72 

Four  Mast  Ship-Spars  and   Sails    (Illustrated)    73 

Notes    on    Wooden    Ship-Building    74-76 

Launching 76-77 

Names  by  which  Parts  of  Wooden   Ships  are  known    77-8'! 

A.  Sectional  Diagrams — Wooden   Ship   Construction    78-8! 

B.  Materials  and   Fastenings    (Wooden    Ships)    84-85 

STEAM  VESSELS 

Merchant    Vessels    (Illustrated)     * 86-89 

Topographical  View  of  Panama  Canal    87 

The  Difference  Between  Gross  and  Net  Tonnage    !)•• 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL. 


INDEX— Continued. 
DESIGN    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    STEEL    MERCHANT 

STEAMSHIPS 
Emergency  Fleet   Standard   Steel   Steamship    92-95 

A.  Standard  Steel  Steamship  (Longitudinal  Section)    91 

B.  Standard   Steel   Steamship    (Midship   Sections)    ; 93-94 

Composite    Steamship    Construction    95 

A.     Composite  Steamship   (Midship  Section)    96 

STOWAGE    OF    CARGO 97-99 

LOAD  LINE  MARKS,   ETC 100 

STATION  BILL 

General   Instructions   for   Fire   Drill    101 

Muster   List    (International   Mercantile   Marine)    102-105 

General    Instructions    for    Boat    Drill    106 

Miscellaneous  Remarks  on  Duties  at  Fire  and  Boat  Drill   ....  106 

Definition  of  Terms  Used  in  Fire  and  Boat  Drill   106-107 

Boat    Service    (Rowboats)     107 

DUTIES  OF  COAL  PASSERS,   FIREMEN,   WATER-TENDERS 
AND  OILERS 

1.  Coal    Passers,    Duties,    Etc 108 

2.  Firemen,  Duties,  Etc 108-109 

3.  Oilers,     Duties,     Etc 109-110 

4.  Water-Tenders,    Duties,    Etc. 110-111 

MARINE  BOILERS  AND  ACCESSORIES 

Types   of   Boilers    (Illustrated)     112-116 

Safety    Valves     (Illustrated)     116-117 

Water  Gauge  and  Test  Cocks   (Illustrated)    117-118 

Steam   Gauge    (Illustrated)    118-lzu 

Stop  Valves   (Illustrated)    120-121 

Check    Valves    (Illustrated) 122 

Fusible    Plugs 123 

THE  USE  OF  OIL  FOR  FUEL  ON   STEAM  VESSELS    ....124-132 

BOILER  ROOM  AUXILIARIES 

Feed   Pumps,   Etc 133 

Relief  Valve    (Illustrated)    18 

Vertical  Duplex  Feed   Pump    (Illustrated)    134 

A.     Names  of  Parts 135 

Feed    Water    Heater     135 

Plunger    Feed    Pump    (Illustrated)     136 

Circulating    Pump    (Illustrated)     137 

Condenser    (Illustrated)     138-139 

Air    Pump 139 

A.  Diagrams   of  Air   Pump    140 

B.  Lists    of    Parts     141 

Evaporator     (Illustrated)     142 

MARINE  ENGINES   FOR  MERCHANT   SERVICE 
Reciprocating  Engines    (Illustrated)    143-146 

A.     Names    of    Parts    145 

Turbine   Marine   Engines    (Illustrated) 146-163 

Glands,    Packing  and   Lubrication 147 

"Parsons"  High  Pressure  Turbine  Engine   (Cross   Section)    . .   148 

A.     Section  Through   Steam   Strainer  and   Controls    149 

Plan  of  Engine  Room  Showing  Location  of  Turbines,  Etc 150 

General   Electric   Marine   Geared   Turbine,    Description    151 

General  Electric  Marine  Geared  Turbine   (Sectional  Diagram)  152 
List  of  Parts,  General  Electric  Marine  Geared  Turbine 153-154 

A.     Diagram    Showing   Arrangement    of    Gears,    Shafts   and 
Bearings     155 


6  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL. 

INDEX— Continued 

B.  Reduction     Gears     156 

C.  Diagram  Showing  Steam  Seals  and  Packing   157 

Instructions  for  Care  and  Operation  of  General  Electric  Marine 

Geared    Turbine     157-163 

INTERNAL  COMBUSTION   MARINE   ENGINES 

The    Diesel    Oil    Engine     163-164 

A.     Diesel    Engines     (Illustrated)     164-167 

CARE  AND  SUPERVISION 

Supervision  of  Bearings  and  Moving  Parts   (Machinery)    ..168-169 

Hot  Eccentric  Sheaves  and  Straps    169 

Heating    of    Guides     170 

Hot    Crosshead     170 

Hot   Piston   Rod    170-171 

Hot    Main    Bearings 171 

Hot    Crankpin    172 

Hot   Thrust   Block    172 

BUOYAGE— AIDS    TO    NAVIGATION    173-174 

SIGNALS  USED  BY  MARINERS 

Signals   from   Pilot   House   to   Engine   Room    175 

Signals   of  Distress    175 

International    Code    of    Signals    176 

International   Code   in   Colors    177-179 

United   States   Storm  Warnings  in  Colors    180 

United    States   Storm   Warnings    181 

Signals   by   Morse   Code    182-185 

Signaling  by  Light  or  Sound    185 

Signaling   by    Semaphore,    Etc 186-187 

Signaling   by    Shapes,    Etc 188-194 

Signaling   by  Flag  Waving,   Wig- Wag,    Etc 194-197 

HELP  IN  CASE  OF  ACCIDENTS 

Directions  for  First  Aid,   Drowning,   Etc 198-207 

To  Restore  Persons  Apparently  Dead  from  Drowning   ....208-212 
Life  Saving  by  Gun,  Rocket  and  Breeches  Buoy   213 

REQUIREMENTS   FOR   LICENSING   OF   DECK    OFFICERS 

Licensing  of  Masters  of  Ocean  Steam  Vessels,   Etc 214-215 

Licensing  of   Masters   of   Coastwise   Steam   Vessels    216 

Licensing  of  Masters  of  Sail  Vessels    217 

Licensing  of  Chief  Mate  of  Ocean  Steam  Vessels  217-218 

Licensing  of  Second  Mate  of  Ocean  Steam  Vessels   218-219 

Licensing  of  Third  Mate  of  Ocean  Steam  Vessels   219 

Licensing  of  Chief  Mate  of  Coastwise  Steam  Vessels   220 

Licensing  of  Second  Mate  of  Coastwise  Steam  Vessels   ....220-221 
Licensing  of  Third  Mate  of  Coastwise  Steam  Vessels   221-222 

REQUIREMENTS   FOR   LICENSING   OF   ENGINEERS 

Licensing  of  Chief  Engineer  of  Ocean  Steam  Vessels   222 

Licensing    of    First    Assistant    Engineer    of    Ocean    Steam 

Vessels     222-223 

Licensing    of    Second   Assistant    Engineer    of    Ocean    Steam 

Vessels     223-224 

Licensing  of  Third  Assistant  Engineer  of  Ocean  Steam  Vessels  224 
Qualifications  and  License  Form  for  Engineers   224 

NAUTICAL  DICTIONARY 

Definition    of   Terms    225-256 

QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

On  Rules  of  the  Road,  Etc 257-262 

On    Seamanship 263-265 

On    Marine    Engineering    268-271 

NAUTICAL  INSTRUMENTS 

Care  and  Use  of 276-280 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


SAFETY  OF  LIFE  AT  SEA. 


LIFEBOATS    AND    OTHER    LIFE    SAVING     EQUIPMENT. 


The  unsinkable  ship  has  not  yet  been  made  commercially  prac- 
ticable and  lifeboat  equipment  is  still  the  means  of  succor  when 
the  vessel  has  become  unsafe  or  unseaworthy  while  at  sea. 

Many  lives  are  saved  each  year  by  lifeboats  and  it  is  fitting  that 
our  opening  chapter  should  deal  with  this  most  essential  apparatus 
for  saving  life. 

During  the  present  period  of  strife  and  warfare,  we  are  con- 
stantly advised  of  vessels  that  have  been  torpedoed,  shelled  or 
mined,  compelling  those  on  board  to  leave  in  lifeboats  and  life 
rafts,  and  we  are  forcibly  reminded  of  the  necessity  for  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  this  equipment. 

The  United  States  Revised  Statutes  have  charged  the  Steam- 
boat Inspection  Service  with  the  responsibility  of  enforcing  the 
laws  governing  the  life  saving  equipment  on  steam  and  other  ves- 
sels, and  that  Service  through  the  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors 
has  prescribed  a  complete  set  of  rules  for  life  saving  equipment, 
which  rules  cover  in  detail  the  care  and  handling  of  lifeboats  and 
life  rafts  and  also  the  gear  necessary  to  efficiently  handle  same  in 
time  of  disaster  or  need.  The  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  is 
composed  of  trained  officers  who  meet  annually  or  oftener  to  re- 
vise and  amend  the  requirements  to  meet  the  ever  changing  con- 
ditions, and  thus  the  crews  of  our  merchant  vessels,  as  well  as 
the"  public  using  steam  vessels  as  a  means  of  transportation,  are 
safeguarded  by  the  approval  and  adoption  of  the  most  modern  in- 
ventions for  saving  life  at  sea. 

The  rules  prescribed  by  the  Supervising  Inspectors  are  carried 
into  effect  by  Local  Boards  of  Inspectors,  located  at  all  important 
seaport  cities  in  the  United  States.  The  construction  and  material 
of  lifeboats  and  life  rafts  are  carefully  supervised  while  being  manu- 
factured and  no  boat  or  raft  shall  be  used  as  life  saving  equipment 
on  board  any  vessel  unless  it  bears  the  stamp  of  approval  of  the 
inspector  detailed  at  the  factory.  Even  after  being  placed  on  board 
the  vessel,  a  careful  follow  up  system  insures  that  the  boats  or  rafts 
are  kept  in  good  condition  and  ready  for  immediate  use. 

Those  who  perform  this  duty  are  men  of  a  splendid  type, 
whose  work  is  done  quietly  and  without  ostentation,  and  the  im- 
portance of  their  work  is  not  generally  known  or  fully  appreciated. 

No  force  of  workers  is  afforded  better  protection  from  sur- 
rounding dangers  than  the  personnel  of  our  merchant  marine,  and 
with  co-operation  and  care,  the  crew  of  every  vessel  is  afforded  the 
utmost  possible  degree  of  safety. 

The  rules  on  life  saving  equipment  are  divided  into  five  classes 
as  follows: — Ocean,  Coastwise,  Great  Lakes,  Bay  and  Sounds  arid 
Rivers.  The  limited  pages  of  this  little  book  will  not  permit  a 
complete  analysis  of  the  five  classes,  and  it  will  therefore  be  best 
to  consider  only  the  first  two,  Ocean  and  Coastwise. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


OCEAN   STEAM  VESSELS. 


Under  the  designation  Ocean  Steam  Vessels,  the  rules  include 
every  Steaui  YCSSG!  navigating  the  waters  of  any  ocean  or  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  more  tftan  twenty ;  nautical  miles  from  shore. 

Ocean  Steam  Vessels  are  divided  into  three  classes  as  follows: 

(a)  Passenger  Steam  Vessels. 

(b)  Passenger  Steam  Vessels,   the  keels  of  which  are  laid  on 
or  after  July  1,  1915. 

(c)  Cargo  Steam  Vessels  and  all  other  Steam  Vessels. 

DAVITS    REQUIRED. 

The  minimum  number  of  sets  of  davits  is  fixed  in  relation  to 
the  length  of  the  vessel;  provided  that  a  number  of  sets  of  davits 
greater  than  the  number  of  boats  necessary  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  all  the  persons  on  board  may  not  be  required. 

Tests  are  conducted  annually  in  order  to  satisfy  the  inspectors 
that  the  boats  can  be  lowered  with  their  full  complement  of  per- 
sons and  equipment,  the  vessel  being  assumed  to  have  a  list  of  15 
degrees. 

The  davits  gear  must  be  of  sufficient  power  to  insure  that  the 
boats  can  be  turned  out  against  the  maximum  list  at  which  the 
lowering  of  the  boats  is  possible  on  the  vessel  in  question. 

LIFEBOATS  REQUIRED. 
Vessels  of  Classes  (a)  and   (b). 

Vessels  of  classes  (a)  and  (b)  shall  be  equipped  with  life- 
boats in  accordance  with  the  following  table,  provided  that  such 
vessels  shall  not  be  required  to  carry  more  lifeboat  capacity  than 
is  necessary  to  accommodate  all  persons  on  board. 

If  the  lifeboats  attached  to  davits  do  not  provide  accommoda- 
tions for  the  vessel's  actual  complement  of  passengers  and  crew, 
additional  lifeboats  of  one  of  the  standard  types  shall  be  installed 
to  accommodate  all  persons  on  board,  or  to  bring  the  complement 
of  lifeboat  capacity  up  to  the  minimum  provided  by  the  table,  or 
to  75  per  cent  of  the  complement  of  people  on  board,  whichever  Is 
the  greater. 

The  remainder  of  the  required  equipment  shall  be  provided 
by  lifeboats  of  one  of  the  standard  types  or  approved  life  rafts. 

MOTOR   LIFEBOATS. 

Ocean  passenger  steam  vessels  of  2,500  gross  tons  or  over, 
which  navigate  over  routes  which  at  any  point  are  more  than  200 
miles  from  shore,  are  required  to  carry  at  least  one  motor  pro- 
pelled lifeboat  for  the  purpose  of  towing  the  other  boats  or  hold- 
ing the  boats  together  until  rescued. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


MINIMUM    REQUIREMENTS. 

A  table  is  provided  for  the  equipment  of  all  Ocean  Passenger 
Vessels  with  the  minimum  number  of  sets  of  davits  and  lifeboats. 

Vessels  of  classes  (a)  and  (b)  shall  be  equipped  with  davits 
in  accordance  with  the  following  table: 


Registered  length  of  ship  in  feet. 


100  and  less  than  120... 
120  and  less  than  140. . . 
140  and  less  than  160... 
160  and  loss  than  175... 
.175  and  less  than  190. . . 
190 and  less  than  205... 
205  and  less  than  220. . 
220  and  less  than  230. .. 
230  and  less  than  245... 
245  and  loss  than  255. .. 
255  and  less  than  270. . . 
270  and  less  than  285. .. 
285  and  less  than  300. . . 
300  and  less  than  315  . . 
315  and  less  than  330. . . 
330  and  less  than  350. . . 
350  and  less  than  370. . . 
370  and  less  than  390. . . 
390  and  less  than  410... 
410  and  less  than  435. . . 
435  and  less  than  460. . . 
400  and  less  than  490... 
490  and  less  than  520. . . 
520  and  less  than  550... 
650  and  less  than  580... 
680  and  less  than  610... 
610  and  less  than  C.40... 
640  and  less  than  670... 
670  and  less  than  700. . . 
700  and  less  than  730. . . 
730  and  less  than  760... 
760  and  less  than  790. . . 
790  and  less  than  820. . . 
820  and  less  than  855... 
855  and  less  than  .890. . . 
890  and  less  than  925. .. 
925  and  less  than  960. . . 
900  and  less  than  905... 
995  and  less  than  1,030. 


Minimum 

number  of 

sets  of 

davits. 


Minimum 
number  of 
open  boats 
of  the  first 
class. 


10 THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL. 

COASTWISE  STEAM  VESSELS. 


Under  this  designation  is  included  all  steam  vessels  navigating 
the  waters  of  any  ocean  or  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  20  nautical  miles 
or  less  off  shore. 

For  the  purpose  of  apportioning  lifeboat  equipment  on  coast- 
wise steam  vessels  they  are  divided  into  the  following  classes: 

A.  Passenger   Steam- Vessels. 

B.  Passenger  Steam  Vessels,    the    keels   of   which    are    laid    on 
or  after  July  1,  1915. 

C.  Cargo  Steam  Vessels  and  all  other  Steam  Vessels. 

LIFEBOATS    AND    LIFE    RAFTS    REQUIRED. 
Lifeboats  and  Life  Rafts  Required  on  Vessels  of  Class  (a). 

Vessels  of  class  (a)  shall  be  required  to  have  lifeboat  and 
life  raft  capacity  to  accommodate  all  persons  on  board.  Not  less 
than  75  per  cent  of  the  total  capacity  shall  be  in  lifeboats  and  2f> 
per  cent  may  be  in  collapsible  lifeboats  or  life  rafts  of  an  approved 
type. 

Vessels  of  class  (a)  during  the  interval  between  May  15  and 
September  15  in  any  one  year,  both  dates  inclusive,  shall  only  be 
required  to  be  equipped  with  lifeboats  and  life  rafts  to  accommo- 
date 70  per  cent  of  all  persons  on  board,  not  less  than  50  per  cent 
of  which  shall  be  in  lifeboats  and  50  per  cent  may  be  in  collapsible 
lifeboats  or  life  rafts. 

Lifeboats   and    Life    Rafts    Required   on   Vessels   of  Class    (b). 

Vessels  of  class  (b)  shall  be  required  to  have  lifeboat  and  life 
raft  capacity  to  accommodate  all  persons  on  board  throughout  the 
year,  not  less  than  75  per  cent  of  which  shall  be  in  approved  life- 
boats and  25  per  cent  may  be  in  collapsible  lifeboats  or  rafts  of  an 
approved  type. 


CARGO  STEAM  VESSELS. 


Cargo  steam  vessels  and  all  other  steam  vessels  navigating 
ocean  or  coastwise  are  required  to  carry  lifeboats  for  ail  persons 
on  board. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  shortly 
after  war  was  declared,  the  cubic  capacity  of  lifeboats  on  cargo 
vessels  entering  the  war  zone  was  changed  from  10  to  15  cubic 
feet  for  each  person  on  existing  vessels  and  in  addition  life  rafts 
are  required  as  excess  equipment  for  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
number  of  persons  on  board. 

On  vessels  constructed  after  the  passage  of  the  rule,  double  boat 
capacity  is  required  on  the  basis  of  10  cubic  feet  per  person,  or  in 
other  words  the  ships  recently  built  and  those  now  being  con- 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL.  11 

structed  which  navigate  overseas  (are  required  to  have  lifeboats  on 
each  side  for  aJI  persons  on  board).  In  addition  to  this,  life  rafts 
for  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  number  of  persons  on  board  are  re- 
quired so  that  the  new  vessels  may  be  said  to  be  equipped  with 
boats  and  rafts  on  the  basis  of  225  per  cent. 

In  this  way  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  endeavors  to  fur- 
nish the  maximum  of  safety. 

The  boats  and  rafts  in  use  on  coastwise  passenger  vessels  are 
the  same  type  as  those  used  on  the  ocean  steamers,  the  standard 
type  of  boat  being  of  metallic  construction. 

EQUIPMENT    FOR    LIFEBOATS. 
Each  boat  is  required  to  be  provided  with: 

1.  Extra  sets  of  oars  and  rowlocks. 

2.  Two  life  preservers. 

3.  Two    hatchets. 

4.  A  liquid  compass. 

5.  A  lantern  filled  with  oil. 

6.  Friction    matches. 

7.  A  water   breaker   containing   one   quart   of  water  for   each 
person. 

8.  Two    enamel    drinking    cups. 

9.  A  watertight  receptacle  containing  two   pounds  avoirdupois 
of   provisions    for    each     person.     These     provisions     may    be     hard 
bread  or  U.   S.  Army  rations. 

10.  A   canvas    bag    containing    sailmaker's    palm,    needles,    sail 
twine,   marline  and  marline  spike. 

11.  A  watertight  metal  case  containing  twelve  self  igniting  red 
lights. 

12.  One  gallon  of  storm  oil. 

13.  A  sea  anchor. 

14.  On  a  vessel  not  equipped  with  wireless,  each  boat  shall  be 
provided  with  a  mast  and  sail;  on  a  vessel  equipped  with  wireless, 
one  boat  on   each   side   shall  be   equipped. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  LIFEBOATS. 

As  previously  stated  all  lifeboats  are  constructed  under  observa- 
tion of  an  inspector  who  is  guided  by  definite  rules  as  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  various  materials  that  are  used  in  constructing  the 
boat.  Each  boat  is  provided  with  air  tanks  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  boat  afloat  in  the  event  of  it  being  flooded.  The  size 
of  the  tanks  are  determined  on  the  basis  of  1  cubic  foot  in  a  wooden 
boat  and  1.5  cubic  feet  in  a  metal  boat  for  each  person  the  boat  is 
allowed  to  carry. 

Frequent  inspections  and  tests  of  the  tanks  are  conducted  to 
Insure  airtightness. 

CARRYING   CAPACITY  OF   LIFEBOATS. 

Each  boat  must  have  a  cubic  capacity  of  at  least  10  cubic  feet 
for  each  person  it  is  allowed  to  carry.  The  cubic  capacity  of  a 
lifeboat  is  determined  by  Stirling's  (Simpson's  rule),  or  is  approxi- 
mately found  as  follows:  measure  the  length  and  breadth  outside 
of  the  planking  or  plating  and  the  depth  at  the  point  of  minimum 
depth.  The  product  of  these  dimensions  multiplied  by  .6  resulting 
in  the  nearest  whole  number,  shall  be  deemed  the  capacity  in  cubic 
feet. 

To  determine  the  number  of  persons  a  boat  will  carry  divide 
the  result  by  10. 


12  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 

The  carrying  capacity  of  a  boat  22  feet  in  length,  6  feet  In 
breadth,  and  2y2  feet  in  depth  shall  be  determined  as  follows: 

FOR  OCEAN  AND  COASTWISE  STEAM  VESSELS. 
Example : 

22X6X2  i£X.6       198 

= =19  persons. 

10  10 

Every  lifeboat  shall  have  sufficient  room,  freeboard,  and  sta- 
bility to  safely  carry  the  number  of  persons  allowed  to  be  carried 
by  the  above  rule,  which  fact  shall  be  determined  by  actual  test 
in  the  water  at  the  time  of  the  first  inspection  of  the  lifeboat,  ex- 
cept that  where  a  vessel  is  carrying  lifeboats  of  different  types  or 
capacities,  at  least  one  lifeboat  of  each  type  or  capacity  shall  be  so 
tested. 

SIZE,   STRENGTH    AND   TEST   OF    LIFEBOATS. 

Lifeboats  on  ocean  and  coastwise  steam  vessels  shall  be  not 
less  than  180  cubic  feet  capacity.  Each  boat  shall  be  of  suf- 
ficient strength  to  be  safely  lowered  to  the  water  with  its  full 
complement  of  persons  and  equipment.  At  each  annual  inspec- 
tion of  a  passenger  vessel,  every  lifeboat  shall  be  so  tested. 

CARE  OF  BOATS  AND  BOAT  FALLS. 

Lifeboats  must  be  overhauled  and  painted  once  a  year,  and  cov- 
ered tubs  or  reels  must  be  provided  for  the  boat  falls  to  protect 
them  from  the  weather.  Articles  other  than  those  required  by  law 
shall  not  be  stored  in  lifeboats. 

MARKING    OF    BOATS. 

Each  lifeboat  shall  have  the  name  and  hailing  port  of  the  ves- 
sel painted  on  the  bow  or  stern,  also  the  boat's  number,  its  cubic 
capacity  and  the  number  of  persons  allowed  to  be  carried.  The 
boats  are  numbered  with  even  numbers  on  the  port  side  and  odd 
numbers  on  the  starboard  side  of  the  vessel,  that  is  to  say,  No.  1 
would  be  the  forward  boat  on  the  starboard  side  and  No.  2  would 
be  the  forward  boat  on  the  port  side  of  the  vessel,  and  so  on. 

HANDLING    OF   THE    BOATS    AND    RAFTS. 

All  the  boats  and  rafts  must  be  stowed  in  such  a  way  that 
they  can  be  launched  in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  that,  even 
under  unfavorable  conditions  of  list  and  trim  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  handling  of  the  boats  and  rafts,  it  may  be  possible  to  em- 
bark in  them  the  maximum  number  of  persons  the  boats  and  rafts 
are  allowed  to  carry. 

The  arrangements  must  be  such  that  it  may  be  possible  to 
launch  on  either  side  of  the  vessel  the  necessary  number  of  boats 
and  rafts. 

The  decks  on  which  lifeboats  of  any  class  or  life  rafts  are 
carried  shall  be  kept  clear  of  freight  or  any  other  obstruction  that 
would  interfere  with  the  immediate  launching  of  the  lifeboats  or 
life  rafts. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  13 


LIFE  RAFTS  AND  OTHER  LIFE  SAVING  EQUIPMENT. 

The  same  care  as  to  construction  and  inspection  is  followed  out 
with  regard  to  rafts,  life  floats,  ring  buoys  arid  life  preservers,  line 
carrying  guns  and  other  life  saving  appliances.  The  equipment 
for  a  life  raft  is  essentially  the  same  as  for  a  lifeboat. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  life  rafts  is  as  follows: 

No  type  of  raft  may  be  approved  unless  it  satisfies  the  follow- 
ing: conditions: 

First.  It  should  be  reversible  and  fitted  with  bulwarks'  of 
wood,  canvas,  or  other  suitable  material  on  both  sides.  These  bul- 
warks may  be  collapsible  and  shall  be  not  less  than  4  inches  high. 

Second.  It  should  be  of  such  size,  strength,  and  weight  that 
it  can  be  handled  without  mechanical  appliances,  and,  if  necessary, 
be  thrown  from  the  vessel's  deck. 

Third.  It  should  have  not  less  than  3  cubic  feet  of  air  cases 
or  equivalent  buoyancy  for  each  person  whom  it  can  accommodate. 

Fourth.  It  should  have  a  deck  area  of  not  less  than  4  square  feet 
for  each  person  whom  it  can  accommodate  and  the  platform  should 
be  not  less  than  6  inches  above  the  water  level  when  the  raft  is 
loaded. 

Fifth.  The  air  tanks  or  equivalent  buoyancy  should  be  placed 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  sides  of  the  raft. 

Rafts  shall  never  be  allowed  a  greater,  number  of  persons  than 
it  can  supply  with  proper  seating  capacity  without  interfering  with 
the  use  of  the  oars.  At  least  one-half  of  the  number  of  life  rafts 
on  all  steam  vessels  shall  each  have  a  capacity  exceeding  15 
persons. 

Tule  and  all  other  types  of  life  rafts  shall  meet  the  above  re- 
quirements. 

LIFE    PRESERVERS. 

Every  vessel  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Steamboat  Inspection 
Service  shall  be  provided  with  one  life  preserver  for  each  person 
carried,  and  passenger  steam  vessels  shall  have  in  addition  thereto 
a  number  of  life  preservers  suitable  for  children,  equal  at  least 
to  ten  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  persons  on  board. 

Life  preservers  are  inspected  and  tested  at  the  factory  where 
manufactured  and  at  the  annual  inspection  of  vessels  and  equip- 
ment. 

RING  BUOYS  AND  SELF  IGNITING  WATER  LIGHTS. 

Ring  buoys  and  self  igniting  water  lights  are  required  on  all 
ocean  and  coastwise  steam  vessels.  The  number  of  buoys  together 
with  the  number  of  self  igniting  lights  depends  upon  the  length 
of  the  vessel. 


LINE  THROWING  GUN  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

All  ocean  steam  passenger  and  pleasure  vessels  of  over  150 
gross  tons  shall  carry  3  line  carrying  projectiles  and  the  means  of 
propelling  same.  This  means  may  be  either  an  approved  gun  or 
rockets.  Projectiles  shall  weigh  not  less  than  18  Ibs.  each.  Vessels 
shall  carry  not  less  than  1,700  feet  of  approved  shot  line  of  same 
type  and  strength  as  the  United  States  Coast  Guard  uses,  said 
line  to  be  protected  at  the  projectile  end,  so  that  it  will  not  be 
burned  when  the  gun  is  fired. 


14 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


Line  Throwing  Gun. 


Vessels  of  over  150  gross  tons  and  under  500  gross  tons  shall 
carry  not  less  than  800  feet  of  3  inch  manila  line.  (Vessels  of  over 
500  gross  tons  shall  carry  not  less  than  1,500  feet  of  3  inch  manila 
line.)  Vessels  should  be  equipped  with  not  less  than  3  full  charges 
of  powder. 

Drills  shall  be  held  at  least  once  in  three  months,  using  any 
line  of  suitable  length  and  about  one-half  of  regular  charge  of  pow- 
der, particulars  of  same  to  be  entered  in  ship's  log  book. 


Shoulder  Gun. 

In  this  little  book  it  has  been  necessary  to  treat  the  subject  of 
life  saving  equipment  briefly.  A  more  detailed  description  may  be 
obtained  by  applying  to  the  local  U.  S.  Inspector  of  Steam  Vessels, 
who  will  gladly  furnish  a  copy  of  the  general  rules  and  regulations 
which  describe  fully  the  many  activities  of  the  Service. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


15 


SEAMANSHIP 


BELL  TIME  ON  SHIPBOARD 


The  twenty-four  hours  are  divided  on  board  ship  into  seven 
parts,  and  the  crew  is  divided  into  two  parts  or  watches,  desig- 
nated Port  and  Starboard  Watches.  Each  watch  is  on  duty  four 
hours,  except  from  4  to  8  P.  M.,  which  time  is  divided  into  two 
watches  of  two  hours  each,  called  Dog  Watches,  by  means  of 
which  the  watches  are  changed  every  day,  and  each  watch  gets 
a  turn  of  eight  hours'  rest  at  night.  First  Watch,  8  P.  M.  to  mid- 
night; Middle  Watch,  midnight  to  4  A.  M.;  Morning  Watch,  4  to 
8  A.  M. ;  Forenoon  Watch,  8  A.  M.  to  noon;  Afternoon  Watch,  noon 
to  4  P.  M.:  First  Dog  Watch.  4  to  6  P.  M.;  Second  Dog  Watch.  6 
to  8  P.  M.  In  the  French  service  there  are  no  Dog  Watches,  but 
there  are  two  watches  of  6  hours  each. 

THE  BELL  IS  STRUCK  EVERY  HALF  HOUR  TO  INDICATE  THE  TIME 

1  Bell, 

2  Bells, 


i  Bell, 

?  Bells, 

3 

4      M 


12.30  A.  M. 
1  .00      " 

5  Bells, 

6--30  A-.  M. 
7.00    " 

i  Bell,     12:30  p.  M 
2  Bells,    i.oo    '* 

i  Bell, 
2  Bells, 

6.30  P 
7.00 

M. 

1.30      " 

7       " 

7-30    " 

3               '-3°i.  " 

3 

7.30 

2.00      " 

8      '* 

8.00    '* 

4                      2.00'     ** 

4 

S.oo 

2.30      " 

i  Bell, 

8.30    " 

i   Bell, 

8.30 

3.00 

2  Bells, 

9.00    " 

6      rt        3.00    "• 

2  Bells, 

<;.oo 

3-3° 

3 

9.30    || 

7      "        3-30    "* 

3      " 

930 

4.00 

4-3° 
5.00 

4 

•s 

6     " 

0.30    " 
i  .00    " 

i   Bell,      ,130    " 
2  Bell's,    5.00    tl 

I  •• 

0,30 

I.OO 

5.30 

7    ;; 

'•3°    *' 

3                530    " 

7 

1.30   " 

.6.00 

2.00  noon. 

4               O.oo    " 

$ 

2.00  niglit* 

TO  MARK  A  LEAD  LINE 


The  hand  lead  has  nine  marks  and  eleven  deeps,  and  is  marked 
to  twenty  fathoms,  as  follows: 

2  fathoms,  two   strips   of  leather. 

3  fathoms,  three  strips  of  leather. 
5  fathoms,  white    cotton   rag-. 

7  fathoms,  red    woolen    rag1. 

10  fathoms,  leather  with  one  round  hole. 

13  fathoms,  same  as  three. 

15  fathoms,  same  as  five. 

17  fathoms,  same    as    seven. 

20  fathoms,  leather  with  two  round  holes. 

The  deep  sea  lead  is  marked  the  vsame  as  the  hand  lead  up  to 
twenty  fathoms,  then  a  plain  mark  for  25  fathoms,  3  knots  for  30 
fathoms,  plain  mark  for  35,  four  knots  for  40  fathoms,,  etc.,  and 
every  ten  fathoms  with  two  knots  up  to  one  hundred  fathoms  which 
is  marked  with  a  piece  of  leather. 

Some  marks  are  woolen  rags  and  some  are  cotton  rags  that 
•they  may  be  distinguished  at  night  by  putting  the  mark  in  the 
mouth. 

A  lend  line  shouM  be  of  material  similar  to  that  used  for  log 
lines,  and  while  being  marked,  must  be  thoroughly  wet. 


16  THE    MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL, 

How  to  Report  the  Soundings. 

In  reporting:  or  calling  the  soundings  the  leadsman  should  al- 
ways make  the  number  of  fathoms  the  last  part  of  the  call.  This  is 
seamanlike  and  is  an  advantage  to  the  officer  on  watch  as  he  will 
generally  get  the  number  of  fathoms  even  though  through  wind  or 
other  causes  the  first  two  or  three  words  are  not  clearly  under- 
stood. 

The  following  is  the  order  in  which  the  report  should  be  made: 

At  a  depth  of  five  fathoms by   the   mark   five. 

At  a  depth  of  5*4  fathoms and   a  quarter  five. 

At  a  depth  of  5%  fathoms and   a  half   five. 

At  a  depth  of  5%  fathoms a  quarter  less  six. 

At  a  depth  of  6       fathoms by  the  deep  six. 

At  a  depth  of  6^  fathoms and    a   quarter   six. 

At  a  depth  of  f>y2  fathoms and  a  half  six. 

At  a  depth  of  6%  fathoms a  quarter  less  seven. 

At  a  depth  of  7       fathoms by  the  mark   seven. 

In  learning  to  heave  the  lead  the  marks  and  deeps  should  be 
memorized.  No  difficulty  will  then  be  experienced  in  reporting  the 
cast. 


THE   SOUNDING    MACHINE. 


For  sounding  purposes  there  is,  in  common  use,  a  machine  con- 
sisting of  a  drum  or  spool  upon  which  is  wound  a  quantity  of  fine 
steel  wire.  This  wire  is  made  fast  to  the  link  which  is  attached  to 
the  lead  and  may  be  allowed  to  run  out  freely  or  may  be  reeled 
in  by  the  proper  use  of  handles  attached  to  the  machine. 

About  a  half  turn  of  the  crank  in  one  direction  slacks  the 
drum,  while  the  turning  of  the  handle  in  the  opposite  direction  sets 
the  brake  and  checks  the  wire  from  running  out. 

The  depth  of  water  may  be  determined  by  means  of  a  depth 
recorder  which  has  a  gauge  and  indicator,  or  by  means  of  glass 
tubes,  the  insides  of  which  are  treated  with  a  chemical  prepara- 
tion. The  glass  tube  is  protected  by  a  brass  case,  the  tube  being 
open  at  the  bottom  and  attached  to  the  lead.  As  the  lead  de- 
scends, water  is  forced  into  the  tube  according  to  pressure  com- 
parable with  the  depth  attained.  The  salt  water  discolors  the 
chemical  coating  showing  how  far  the  water  enters  the  tube.  The 
discolored  portion  of  the  tube  measured  by  a  scale,  gives  the 
depth.  In  addition  the  machine  has  a  clocklike  dial  which  records 
the  length  of  wire  reeled  out.  This  does  not,  however,  give  the 
accurate  depth  of  water  and  serves  only  as  a  check  upon  the  cast. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  17 


The  Sounding  Machine. 


18  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

LOCATION     OF    SOUNDING     MACHINE. 

Select  the  most  convenient  place  on  the  taffrail  and  make  the 
fair-lead  fast  to  the  rail.  The  machine  is  placed  about  12  feet 
away  from  the  fair-lead  and  made  fast  to  the  deck  by  means  of 
screws  which  pass  through  its  base. 

Note — The  fair-lead  is  a  pulley  over  which  the  wire  passes. 


METHOD    OF    OPERATION. 

After  the  machine  is  placed  and  the  handles  attached,  the  arm 
is  made  fast  by  turning  the  catch  around  and  the  brake  is  set  to 
prevent  the  wire  running  out.  The  depth  recorder  or  the  chemical 
tube  is  then  adjusted  and  made  fast  to  the  ropes  between  the  link 
and  the  sinker,  and  the  wire  made  fast  to  the  link. 

The  attachments  are  then  carefully  lowered  overboard  by  hand, 
and  the  wire  placed  in  the  fair-lead  with  the  link  hanging  just 
clear.  The  wire  is  then  taut  and  the  register  on  the  machine  should 
indicate  zero. 

When  ready  to  make  a  cast,  a  slight  turn  of  the  handle  will 
unship  the  brake,  and  the  wire  is  controlled  by  pressing  upon  it 
by  the  finger-pin  which  shows  when  bottom  is  reached  by  a  slack- 
ening of  the  wire  under  pressure  of  the  pin. 


THE    INDICATOR. 

Watch  carefully  and  gradually  apply  the  brake  before  all  the 
wire  has  passed  off  the  drum  or  bottom  has  been  reached,  then  re- 
verse the  motion  of  the  drum  and  re-wind  the  wire,  guiding  it  in- 
board by  hand  with  a  piece  of  waste  canvas.  Watch  until  the 
link  is  close  to  the  fair-lead  and  then  bring  the  depth-recorder 
inboard  by  hand,  carefully  keeping  it  upright  until  read. 

The  speed  at  which  the  ship  is  moving  determines  the  length 
of  wire  in  excess  of  depth  of  water  required  to  reach  bottom,  and 
great  care  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  looping  or  slacking  of  the 
wire  and  to  prevent  kinks  forming. 

A  kinked  wire  is  practically  destroyed  as  a  slight  pull  will  break 
it. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  19 

KNOTS  AND  MILES 

There  is  a  growing  practice  of  making  an  improper  use  of  the 
word  knot,  not  only  with  landsmen,  engineers  and  shipbuilders, 
but  also  with  those  who  should  know  better.  The  prevailing  idea 
appears  to  be  that  a  knot  is  the  same  as  the  geographical,  nautical 
or  sea  mile,  and  that  the  word  "knot"  is  used  to  avoid  possible 
confusion  with  the  statute  land  mile.  But  this  is  quite  wrong. 
The  knot  is  the  cosmopolitan  unit  of  speed,  employed  at  sea  by 
sailors  of  all  civilized  nations.  One  knot  is  a  speed  of  one  nauti- 
cal mile  an  hour,  the  nautical  being  the  mean  sexagesimal 
minute  of  latitude  on  the  earth's  surface,  so  that  it  is  90  x  60 — 
5,400  miles  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  and  this  is  the  only  mile 
the  sailor  knows  or  uses.  A  nautical  or  Admiralty  measured  mile 
(we  do  not  say  an  Admiralty  knot)  is  slightly  more  than  6,080 
feet  so  that  one  knot  is  a  speed  of  a  little  more  than  100  feet 
a  minute,  more  nearly  101  to  102  feet  a  minute;  thus,  on  a  log 
line,  with  a  half  minute  glass  or  interval  of  time,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  knots  should  be  50  feet  or  a  little  over,  say  51  feet. 
The  word  knot  is  derived  from  the  knots  on  the  log  line;  the 
number  of  knots  that  pass  over  the  ship's  taffrail  during  the  half 
minute  or  other  interval  of  time  gives  the  speed  of  the  ship  in 
knots.  The  only  occasion  then  in  which  it  is  permissible  to  use 
the  word  knot  as  the  equivalent  of  a  length  is  in  tracing  the  knots 
on  the  log  line,  and  then  by  a  familiar  tendency  in  language,  the 
"distance  between  two  knots"  is  abreviated  in  speech  to  the 
"length  of  a  knot."  By  a  curious  perversity  and  straining  after 
precision,  the  incorrect  expression  "knot  an  hour,"  to  express  the 
speed  of  a  ship,  is  creeping  into  general  use,  with  the  effect  of  dis- 
placing the  word  mile  by  knot.  No  real  sailor  would  say  that  a 
rock  on  the  land  was  half  a  knot,  one  knot,  etc.,  away.  It  is  too 
often  urged  that  the  expression  "knots  an  hour"  is  so  much  clearer 
and  more  definite:  but  we  might  just  as  well  measure  pressure  in 
"atmospheres  per  square  inch." 

STEERING   ORDERS 

Close    Hauled — Same    as    "Full-and-By." 

Ease  Her— To  let  the  vessel  go  off  a  little  from  the  wind. 

Full-and-By — As  close  to  the  wind  as  the  vessel  will  lay  and  keep 
her  sails  full. 

Helm  Down — To  bring  the  vessel  nearer  the  wind. 

Helm   Up. — To  let  the  vessel  go  off  from  the  wind. 

Make  the  Course  Good — When  running  before  the  wind  and  yaw- 
ing, to  manage  the  helm  so  that  the  vessel  will  deviate  as 
much  on  one  side  of  the  course  as  on  the  other — the  middle 
point  being  the  course  given  to  the  helmsman. 

Meet  Her — To  reverse  the  helm  and  check  the  swing  of  the  ves- 
sel's head. 

No  Higher — Not  to  bring  the  vessel  any  closer  to  the  wind. 

Nothing  Off — Not  to  allow  the  vessel  to  go  any  more  off.  from  the 
wind. 

Pinch  Her — To  put  the  wheel  down  sufficiently  to  shiver  the  sails. 

Rap  Full — To  keep  away  from  the  wind  enough  to  make  all  the 
sails  draw  well. 

Steady — To  hold  the  vessel  as  she  pointed  when  the  order  was 
given. 

Port  Helm — To  put  helm  towards  the  right  hand  or  starboard  side 
of  ship. 

Starboard  Helm — To  put  helm  towards  the  left  hand  or  port  side  of 
shiD. 


20  THE     MERCHANT     MARINA     MANUAL, 


INTERNATIONAL  RULES. 


PILOT   RULES. 


The  international  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea  are  to 
be  followed  by  all  public  and  private  vessels  of  the  United  States 
upon  the  high  seas  and  in  all  waters  connected  therewith,  naviga- 
ble by  seagoing  vessels,  except  so  far  as  navigation  of  inland  waters 
is  governed  by  the  inland  rules. 

These  rules  govern  the  movement  of  vessels  by  day  and  night 
with  special  reference  to  meeting  and  passing  each  other,  the  sig- 
nals to  be  exchanged;  the  lights  to  be  carried  and  the  speed  in  fog, 
mist,  falling  snow  or  heavy  rain  storms. 

The  international  rules  have  been  prepared  at  International 
Conferences  and  agreed  to  by  the  principal  maritime  nations  and 
are  applicable  on  inland  waters,  unless  special  rules  exist  to  the 
contrary  duly  made  by  local  authority. 

In  the  United  States,  special  rules  known  as  the  inland  rules  are 
enacted  by  Congress,  which  govern  the  movement  of  vessels  upon 
inland  waters  such  as  bays,  harbors,  rivers,  lakes  and  sounds  and 
are  to  be  followed  upon  such  waters  that  are  highways  of  commerce 
or  open  to  general  or  competitive  navigation. 

In  addition  to  the  inland  rules  enacted  by  Congress,  there  will 
be  found  in  the  "Pilot  Rules"  a  set  of  regulations  established  by 
the  Board  of  United  States  Supervising  Inspectors,  Steamboat  In- 
spection Service,  by  authority  of  Congress.  These  are  to  be  fol- 
lowed, unless  found  to  be  at  variance  with  the  inland  rules,  in 
which  case,  the  courts  have  given  precedence  to  the  inland  rules. 

Inland  waters  are  defined  in  the  "Pilot  Rules"  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Coast  and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  by  boundary  lines  which 
divide  the  inland  waters  from  the  high  seas,  and  upon  them  the 
inland  rules  apply. 

The    inland    rules   are   divided    in   three    parts,    as  follows: 

Rules  for  certain  inland  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Coasts  and  of  the  Coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  Rules  for  the 
Great  Lakes  and  their  connecting  and  tributary  waters  as  far  East 
as  Montreal;  Rules  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North  and  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

They  are  somewhat  similar  and  closely  related  to  each  other, 
the  inland  rules  containing  more  detailed  provisions  for  navigation 
of  narrow  and  crowded  waters  and  the  language  used  throughout  is 
clear  and  easily  comprehended. 

Keeping  the  lookout  when  the  vessel  is  underway  is  one  of  the 
duties  of  a  seaman  aboard  a  merchant-ship.  The  lookout  is  sta- 
tioned at  or  near  the  bow  of  the  vessel,  between  the  hours  of  sun- 
set and  sunrise;  also  when  the  weather  is^foggy,  and  when  enter- 
ing or  leaving  port. 

It  is  therefore  very  essential  to  become  familiar  with  the 
rules  in  order  to  report  your  observations  intelligently  to  the 
officer  on  the  bridge  and  thereby  assist  in  the  navigation  of  the 
vessel.  Should  a  collision  occur  between  your  vessel  and  another, 
while  you  are  on  lookout,  you  will  be  called  as  one  of  the  principal 


__ THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  21 

witnesses  at  the  trial  of  the  licensed  officers,  before  the  U.  S.  Local 
Inspectors  and  again  in  the  Federal  Court,  should  suit  be  brought 
by  the  owners  of  either  of  the  vessels.  If  you  are  not  familiar  with 
the  rules,  it  may  result  in  your  testimony  being  considered  as  val- 
ueless and  this  may  result  in  the  officer  losing  his  license  and  at 
the  same  time  his  livelihood,  while  the  owner  of  your  vessel  would 
doubtless  lose  his  suit  for  damage  against  the  other  vessel.  You 
will,  therefore,  realize  how  important  it  is  that  you  should  learn 
these  rules  by  heart,  and  understand  fully  their  meaning  and  their 
relation  to  each  other. 

It  is  a  good  plan  when  off  duty  to  discuss  the  rules  with  your 
shipmates,  drawing  diagrams  of  the  positkms  of  vessels  meeting 
and  passing;  the  proper  rule  to  be  observed  in  each  case;  and  the 
signals  to  be  made.  If  a  doubt  exists  on  any  question,  appeal  to 
an  officer  of  your  ship  for  a  decision  and  explanation.  It  will  not 
alone  be  helpful  to  you  and  your  shipmates,  but  helpful  to  the  of- 
ficer, for  in  this  way  many  points  are  brought  out  to  the  advantage 
of  all  concerned. 


RULES   OF  THE   ROAD   AT  SEA 


Red  White  Green 

•  • 

1.  Two  Steamships  meeting  end  on,  or  nearly  end  on. 

Meeting  Steamers  do  not  dread 
When  you  see  three  lights  ahead! 
Port  your  helm  and  show  your  Red. 

2.  Two  Steamships  passing. 

For  Steamers  passing  you  should  try 
To  keep  this  maxim  in  your  eye: 
Green  to  Green,  or  Red  to  Red — 
Perfect   safety — go   ahead. 

3.  Two  Steamships  crossing.     This  is  the  real  position  of  danger. 

The  steamship  that  has   the   other  on  her  own  starboard   side 

shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  other. 

There  is  nothing  for  it  but  good  lookout,  caution  and  judgment. 
If  to  Starboard  Red  appear, 
'Tis  your  duty  to  keep  clear; 
Act  as  judgment  says  is  proper — 
Port  on  Starboard,  back  or  stop  her! 
But  when  on  your  port  is  seen 
A  steamer  with  a  light  of  Green, 
There's  not  so  much  for  you  to  do — 
The  Green  light  must  keep  clear  of  you. 

4.  All  ships   must  keep  a  good   lookout,  and   Steamships   must  stop 

and   go  astern,   if   necessary 

Both   in   safety  and   in   doubt 
Always  keep  a  good   lookout; 
Should  there  not  be  room  to  turn. 
Stop  your  ship  and  go  astern. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL. 


WINDS  AND  SOUND  SIGNALS 


Wind  is  air  in  motion.  The  direction  of  the  wind  is  designat- 
ed by  the  point  of  the  compass  from  which  it  blows.  All  winds 
are  caused  directly  or  indirectly  by  changes  of  temperature.  If 
two  neighboring  regions  become  very  unequal  in  temperature  from 
any  cause,  the  air  of  the  warmer  region,  being  lighter  than  the 
other,  will  ascend  and  be  poured  over  it  from  above,  while  the 
heavier  air  of  the  colder  region  will  flow  in  below  to  supply  its 
place.  The  rotation  of  the  earth  alone  produces  no  permanent 
wind  because  the  atmosphere  has  the  same  velocity  of  rotation 
as  that  of  the  portion  of  the  earth  upon  which  it  rests,  but  the 
earth's  rotation  materially  modifies  the  operation  of  other  dis- 
turbing causes. 

Velocity  Per  Hour  Designation 

Up  to  2  miles Calm. 


7 
11 
16 
20 
25 
29 
35 
42 
49 
57 
66 
79 


.Light  air. 
.Light    breeze. 
.Gentle   breeze. 
.Moderate    breeze. 
.Fresh    breeze. 
.Strong  breeze. 
.Moderate   gale. 
.Fresh  gale. 
.Strong  gale. 
.Whole  gale. 
.Storm. 
.Hurricane. 


Sound  is  conveyed  in  a  very  capricious  way  through  the  at- 
mosphere. Apart  from  wind,  large  areas  of  silence  have  been 
found  in  different  directions  and  different  distances  from  the  sig- 
nals, in  some  instances  even  when  in  close  proximity  to  the  sound 
signal.  The  mariner  should  not  assume — 

1.  That   he    is   out    of   ordinary   hearing    distance    because    he 
fails  to  hear  the  sound. 

2.  That  because   he   hears   a   fog-signal   faintly,    he   is   a   great 
distance  away  from  it. 

3      That  he  is  near  it  because  he  hears  the  sound  plainly. 

4*  That  the  distance  from  and  the  intensity  of  the  sound  on 
any  one  occasion  is  a  guide  to  him  for  any  future  occasion. 

5.  That  the  fog-signal  has  ceased  sounding  because  he  does 
not  hear  it  even  when  in  close  proximity. 


WIND   FORCE 


Beaufort's  Scale 


Velocity   Miles 

per  Hour 
0— Calm.     Full  rigged  ship,   all  sails  set,   no  head-       ^ 

1 LJght  Air."  Just  sufficient  to  give  steerage  way        8 

2 Light  Breeze.     Speed  of  one  or  two  knots,  '  full 

3— Gentle7  Breeze.' '  Speed*  of  ' three'  'or  '  four'  'knots, 
"full    and    by" 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  23 

4 — Moderate    Breeze.     Speed    of   five   or   six   knots, 

"full  and   by"    23 

5 — Fresh  Breeze.    All  plain  sail,  "full  and  by"   ....     28 
6 — Strong     Breeze.     Topgallant    sails    over    single- 
reefed    topsails    34 

7 — Moderate  Gale.     Double-reefed  topsails 40 

8 — Fresh    Gale.     Treble-reefed    topsails    (or   reefed 

upper  topsails  and  courses)    48 

9 — Strong   Gale.     Close-reefed  topsails  and  courses 

(or  lower  topsails  and  courses) 56 

10 — Whole     Gale.     Close-reefed     main     topsail     and 
reefed    fore    sail    (or    lower    main    topsail    and 

reefed  foresail)    65 

11 — Storm.     Storm  staysails    75 

12 — Hurricane.    Under   bare   poles    90 


BEAUFORT     NOTATION,     FORMULA     AS     USED     FOR 
INDICATING  THE  DISTURBANCE  OF  THE  SEA 


0  Calm. 

1  Very  Smooth. 

2  Smooth. 

3  Slight. 

4  Moderate. 

5  Rather   Rough. 

6  Rough. 

7  High. 

8  Very  High. 

9  Tremendous. 


BOXING   OF   MARINERS'   COMPASS 


The  mariners'  compass  should  be  kept  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  dynamo  or  any  iron  work  on  the  ship.  Inside  the  bowl  of  the 
compass  will  be  found  a  vertical  line  called  the  "lubber  line."  This, 
with  the  center  of  the  card,  indicates  the  boat's  longitudinal  center 
line.  Place  the  "lubber  line"  towards  the  bow,  and  the  points  on 
the  compass  card  will  indicate  the  direction  the  boat  is  pointing. 

The  names  of  the  "points"  reading  in  the  direction  the  hands 
of  a  watch  move  are  as  follows:  NORTH,  North  by  East,  North, 
Northeast,  Northeast  by  North,  Northeast,  Northeast  by  East, 
East-Northeast,  East  by  North.  EAST,  East  by  South,  East- 
Southeast,  Southeast  by  East,  Southeast,  Southeast  by  South, 
South-Southeast,  South  by  East.  SOUTH,  South  by  West,  South- 
Southwest,  Southwest  by  South,  Southwest,  Southwest  by  West, 
West- Southwest,  West  by  South.  WEST,  West  by  North,  West- 
Northwest,  Northwest  by  West,  Northwest,  Northwest  by  North, 
North-Northwest,  North  by  West,  North. 


WATCHES  AS  COMPASSES 


"Point  the  hour  hand  of  your  watch  to  the  Sun  and  the  South 
us  exactly  half  way  between  the  hour  and  figure  XII.  on  the  watch. 
For  instance,  suppose  it  is  4  o'clock.  Ppint  the  hand  indicating 
four  to  the  Sun,  and  the  II.  on  the  watch  is  exactly  South.  Sup- 
pose it  is  8  o'clock,  point  the  hand  indicating  eight  to  the  Sun, 
and  the  figure  X.  on  the  watch  is  due  South. 


24 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


25 


\nKeV>  I  \r>5o*»/»  I  V»5O*t/>  i  5ir>*oN«  j  ^O5«n  I  V*oV>  |  V^O*««  I  ^O***  J 
•  000000000000600000000000  o^o  o^o  o^o 


WWW 


%«r>O*««| 
•«•»«>•-    I 


S5S5S5 


^j 


26 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


27 


28      THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

KNOTS,  BENDS  AND  SPLICES 

For  the  Use  of 

SEAMEN 


There  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  correct  knowledge  of  how  to 
make  the  various  bends,  knots  and  splices  used  on  board  ship, 
is  of  essential  importance  to  the  sailor  whether  amateur  or  pro- 
fessional. 

Formerly,  when  the  work  of  fitting  and  rigging  a  vessel  was 
often  carried  put  by  the  crew  alone,  such  knowledge  formed  part 
of  the  education  of  every  boy  sent  to  sea. 

At  the  present  time,  with  the  exception  of  the  most  common- 
ly used  hitches  and  bends,  sailors  as  a  rule  know  almost  nothing 
of  the  art  of  rigging  as  practised  by  our  forefathers.  This  has 
been  brought  about  chiefly  by  the  use  of  wire,  and  also  by 
the  fact  that  most  of  the  work  connected  with  the  rigging  of  a 
vessel  is  performed  by  a  special  class  of  men  styled  riggers,  who 
are  regularly  trained  at  the  various  dockyards  for  such  duty.  This 
is  one  reason  why  so  many  vessels,  disabled  at  sea  by  loss  of  their 
upper  spars  and  gear,  return  to  port  to  refit,  instead,  as  was  for- 
merly the  case,  of  those  in  charge  entrusting  the  work  of  repair  to 
the  crew,  while  continuing  the  voyage. 

ROPES 

The  rigging  of  a  vessel  is  either  standing  or  running.  The 
standing  rigging  consists  of  shrouds  and  stays,  used  for  support- 
ing the  masts,  while  the  running  rigging  is  that  used  for  halliards, 
sheet,  tacks,  etc.,  which,  of  course,  reeve  through  blocks  and 
sheave  holes.  The  ropes  used  on  board  ship  are  of  several  kinds. 
The  principal  being  cable  laid,  hawser  laid  and  shroud  laid  rope. 

Ropes  are  made  either  of  hemp,  manila,  cotton  or  coir.  Wire 
is  also  extensively  used  for  standing  rigging. 

Hemp  is  best  for  standing  rigging,  or  running  rigging  where 
a  heavy  purchase  is  required;  manila  for  light  running  rigging; 
cotton  for  man  ropes,  ridge  ropes,  and  yoke  lines;  while  coir,  or, 
as  it  is  commonly  called  by  sailors,  bass  rope,  is  useful  for  warps, 
as  it  is  light  and  easily  handled,  as  compared  with  its  strength. 

Hemp  rope  is  generally  tarred,  but  manila,  cotton  and  coir 
are  not  tarred.  Formerly,  Stockholm  tar  was  the  only  tar  used 
for  hemp  rope,  because  it  was  thought  that  coal  tar  burnt  the 
strands,  but  experiments  of  late  ye<ars  have  demonstrated  that  of 
the  two,  coal  tar  is  the  least  injurious. 

Ropes  are  made  by  twisting  several  yarns  together  into 
strands,  each  strand  containing  an  equal  number  of  yarns,  then 
laying  them  up  in  a  spiral  form,  so  that  each  separate  yarn  bears 
an  equal  strain.  The  strength  of  any  single  rope  is  the  combined 
strength  of  each  separate  yarn,  and  unless  these  yarns  are  very 
carefully  twisted  together,  so  as  to  bring  an  equal  strain  upon 
each  part,  the  rope  is  imperfect  and  untrustworthy.  In  choosing 
rope,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  strands  are  smoothly,  evenly, 
and  closely  laid. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


29, 


FIG. 


FIG.    2. 


FIG.    3 


A  cable  laid  rope  is  composed  of  three  hawser  laid  ropes, 
twisted  the  contrary  way,  so  that  it  is  in  fact  a  nine  strand  rope. 

Figure  1  is  a  cable  laid  rope. 

A  shroud  laid  rope  is  a  four  strand  rope,  twisted  right  hand- 
ed, in  the  same  direction  as  the  course  of  the  sun.  See  Figure  2. 

A  hawser  laid  rope  is  composed  of  three  strands  of  yarn,  right 
handed,  with  the  sun.  Figure  3. 


SPLICING 


Having  described  the  different  ropes,  the  next  step  is  to  know 
how  to  join  them  together  in  case  of  breakage.  This  can  be  done 
either  by  knotting  or  splicing.  If  the  rope  belongs  to  the  running 
rigging,  which  of  course  implies  that  it  has  to  reeve  through 
blocks  or  sheave  holes,  splicing  is  necessary,  because  a  knot 
would  present  too  great  an  obstacle  to  the  passage  of  a  rope 
through  the  sheave  hole  of  a  block.  Begin  with  a  short  splice, 
as  this  is  most  commonly  used,  where  time  is  to  be  considered. 

We  will  suppose  it  is  a  hawser  laid  rope  which  is  being  op- 
erated upon.  Take  the  two  severed  ends  of  the  rope,  unlay  the 
strands  to  the  distance  of  twelve  inches  or  more,  and  bring  the 
two  ends  of  the  rope  together,  as  in  Fig.  1  on  next  page. 


30 


THE      MERCHANT     MARINE      MANUAL 


PIC.  I. 

SHORT  SPLICE. 


Take  the  rope  and  hold  it  in  the  left  hand,  also  the  strand^  A, 
B,  C.  Take  the  strand  E,  and  having  passed  it  over  A,  tuck  it 
through  under  strand  C,  of  rope  H,  haul  it  taut.  Proceed  the 
same  way  with  strand  G,  passing  it  over  B  and  under  A,  finishing 
with  strand  F,  which  is  treated  the  same  way,  passing  it  over 
the  strand  first  next  to  it,  and  under  the  second.  Turn  the  rope 
around,  and  do  the  same  with  the  other  side;  then  the  splice  will 
be  like  Fig.  2. 


FIG.  2. 

SHORT  SPLICE  — Continued. 


This  is  not,  however,  sufficient  for  strength,  so  the  whole 
process  must  be  repeated  on  both  sides,  and  if  a  very  neat  splice 
is  required,  the  ends  of  the  strands  may  be  tapered  by  being 
scraped  with  a  knife.  A  marling-spike  must  be  used  to  open  the 
strands  for  the  second  passing,  as  this  has  not  been  previously 
untwisted. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


31 


FIG.  3. 


An  Eye  Splice,  Fig.  3,  is  made  by  opening  the  end  of  a  rope, 
and  laying  the  strands  E,  F,  G,  at  the  required  distance  upon  the 
standing  part  to  form  the  eye.  See  A.  The  strand  H  is  tucked 
through  the  strand  next  to  it,  having  previously  opened  it  with  a 
marling-spike.  Strand  I  is  taken  over  the  same  strand  and 
through  the  second,  and  strand  K  through  the  third  on  the  other 
side. 


FIG 


A  Long  Spliee,  Fig.  4,  is  the  most  effective  of  all  splices,  but 
it  requires  more  time  than  the  short  splice.  It  is  made  thus:  unlay 
the  ends  to  be  joined  some  two  or  three  feet,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  rope.  Place  the  two  ends  together  as  for  a  short  splice. 

Unlay  strand  C  and  lead  it  back  to  A,  then  take  D  and  lay  it 
up  in  the  space  left  by  C.  Do  this  with  the  strand  E  and  F  on 
the  opposite  side.  The  rope  now  presents  the  appearance  of 
Fig.  6. 


32 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


The  two  middle  strands,   G   and   H,   must  now   be   knotted   to- 
gether with  an  overhand  knot,   thus — 


Fig.  6 

taking  care  that  the  knot  is  made  so  that  the  ends  follow  the 
lay  of  the  rope,  and  not  across  it — Fig.  6.  Then  divide  the  strands 
in  halves,  and  pass  them  over  one  strand  and  under  two,  or,  under 
one  forward  and  one  back.  The  strands  E  and  F  and  C  and  D  are 
treated  in  the  same  way.  Tuck  them  through  two  or  three  times, 
stretch  the  splice  well  and  then  cut  the  ends  off  close. 


FIG.  7. 


A  Cut  Splice  is  made  the  same  as  the  eye  splice,  only  with  two 
ropes  instead  of  one.     See  Fig.  7. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


33 


KNOTS    AND    BENDS 

The  knot  most  commonly  used  next  to  an  Overhand  Knot,  al- 
ready described,  is  that  known  as  the  Reef  Knot,  from  its  being 
always  used  to  tie  the  reef  points  of  a  sail.  First  take  an  over- 
hand knot,  and  then  pass  the  ends  so  that  they  take  the  same  lay 
as  the  crossed  parts  of  the  overhand  knot,  as  Fig.  8.  Unless  this 
is  done  the  knot  will  form  a  granny  or  lubber's  knot. 


FIC.  II. 

A  Bowline  Knot. — Hold  the  end  of  the  rope  in  the  right  hand, 
and  the  standing  part  in  the  left.  Lay  the  end  over  the  standing 
part,  turn  the  bight  of  the  standing  part  over  it,  so  that  it  forms 
a  loop  with  the  end  through.  Lead  the  end  around  the  standing 
part  above  the  loop  so  made,  and  bring  it  down  as  in  Fig.  9. 

Bowline  on  a  Bight. — Proceed  as  for  a  single  bowline,  the  bight 
in  the  right  hand,  the  standing  part  in  the  left.  Now  take  the 
bight  around  the  standing  part,  and  pass  it  over  the  larger  bight 
and  haul  taut,  it  will  then  be  like  Fig.  10. 

Running  Bowline. — Take  the  end  of  a  rope  around  the  stand- 
ing part,  and  make  a  single  bowline  knot  on  its  own  part,  as  in 
Fig.  11. 


34  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


FIG.  12. 

Two  Half  Hitches. — This  is  a  very  simple  way  of  making  a 
rope  fast  in  a  hurry,  where  a  long-continued  strain  is  not  ex- 
pected, such  as  a  boat's  painter.  Pass  the  end  of  the  rope  around 
the  standing  part,  and  bring  it  up  through  the  bight.  This  is  a 
half  hitch;  repeat  the  process  and  draw  taut.  If  the  hitch  is  to 
bear  a  great  strain,  lash  the  end  to  the  standing  part  with  spun- 
yarn,  as  in  Fig.  12.  This  is  sometimes  called  a  clove  hitch. 


FIG.  13. 

Fig.   of  8  knot  is  very  simple,   the  sketch  Fig.   13,   explains  it- 
self. 


FIG.   14. 

A  Fisherman's  Bend,  Fig.  14,  is  sometimes  used  for  bending 
on  the  gaff  topsail  halliards  in  a  yacht,  or  topmast  stunsail  hal- 
liard in  a  square-rigged  craft.  Tt  consists  of  two  round  turns 
around  the  spar,  a  half  hitch  around  the  standing  part,  and  under- 
the  turns  on  the  spar,  then  half  hitch  the  end  around  the  stand- 
ing part. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


35 


PIC.   IS. 

Another  bend  used  by  Yachtsmen  is  called  the  Topsail  Hal- 
liard Bend,  Fig.  15.  This  is  made  by  taking  two  turns  around 
the  spar,  then  leading  the  end  back  around  the  standing  part  and 
underneath  all  the  turns,  bringing  it  around  to  its  own  part  and 
back  again  over  the  two  outer  turns,  and  underneath  the  inner 
turn. 


PIC.  16. 


PIC.   17. 


A  Shroud  Knot. — This  is  a  knot  used  for  joining  a  shroud  or 
stay  that  has  been  carried  away. 

Take  the  two  severed  ends,  unlay  them  the  same  as  for  a  short 
splice.  Place  them  together  closely,  take  the  outside  strand  of  the 
lower  part  and  pass  it  around  the  upper  part  in  a  loop.  Take  the 
next  lower  strand,  pass  it  under  and  up  through  the  bight  of  the 
first-named  strand,  then  take  the  end  of  the  next  lower  strand, 


36 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


pass  it  around  the  end  of  the  first  strand,  outside  of  the  second 
strand,  and  up  through  the  bight  of  the  first  strand,  draw  hand 
taut,  and  do  the  same  with  the  other  part.  Fig.  16  shows  how  to 
pass  the  strands.  Fig.  17  shows  the  knot  completed.  The  ends 
of  the  strands  may  be  marled  and  served  to  make  a  neat  job. 


FIG.   18. 


FIG.  I9c 


PIC.  2O. 


A  Timber  Hitch,  Fig.  18,  is  made  by  passing  the  end  of  a  rope 
around  a  spar  or  timber  head,  leading  it  up  under  and  over  the 
standing1  part,  and  passing  a  couple  of  turns  around  its  own  part. 

A  Cat's  Paw,  Fig.  19. — Take  the  end  of  a  rope,  lay  it  over  the 
standing  part,  making  a  loop  with  the  bight,  form  another  loop, 
turn  the  two  loops  over  from  you  two  or  three  times,  bring  the 
two  loops  together,  and  put  the  hook  of  a  tackle  through  the  two 
loops. 

A  Blackwall  Hitch,  Fig.  20,  is  used  sometimes  for  the  same 
purpose  as  the  before-mentioned  hitch.  The  Fig.  explains  it- 
self, the  underneath  part  being  jambed  by  the  strain. 


FIG.  20  /U 


20  B. 


A  Sheet  Bend,  Fig.  20  A.  —  Make  a  bight  with  one  rope,  then 
pass  the  end  of  another  rope  through  the  bight,  and  around  both 
parts  of  the  first  rope  A,  and  underneath  its  own  part.  This  is 
generally  used  for  bending  one  rope  to  another  when  in  a  hurry. 
If  taken  around  again,  and  through  the  bight  again  it  holds  better 
and  is  less  liable  to  jamb—  see  Fig.  20  B. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  37 


PIC.  21. 

A  Magnus  Hitch,  Fig.  21. — Pass  two  round  turns  with  the  end 
of  a  rope  over  a  spar,  then  take  it  before  the  standing  part,  pass 
it  again  under  the  spar  and  up  through  the  bight  A.  Tnis  *s 
often  called  a  Rolling  Hitch.  Its  great  value  is  its  non-liability 
to  slip  in  the  direction  of  A. 


FIG.  22.  FIC.  23. 

A  Midshipman's  Hitch,  Fig.  22  and  23.— This  is  a  very  old- 
fashioned  hitch.  It  is  generally  used  to  hitch  a  tail  block  on  to 
a  rope.  Take  the  end  of  the  rope  around  the  standing  part  and 
half  hitch  to  the  same;  then  take  another  turn  through  the  bight 
and  haul  taut,  then  it  will  appear  like  Fig.  23. 


38 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


A  Carrick  Bend,  Fig.  24. — Take  the  end  of  a  rope  and  make  a 
bight  with  the  end  over  the  standing  part.  Pass  the  end  of  an- 
other rope  through  the  bight  over  the  standing  part  of  the  first 
rope  at  A,  and  under  the  end  B,  and  again  through  the  bight  over 
its  own  standing  part  C.  Haul  taut.  This  is  generally  used  for 
bending  hawsers  together. 


FIC.  24. 


FIG.   25. 


FIC.  26. 


FIG.  27. 


A  Sheepshank,  Figs.  25  and  26. — This  is  a  quick  and  ready  way 
of  shortening  a  rope.  Double  the  slack  rope  and  lay  it  in  parallel 
lines,  as  in  Fig.  25.  Then  take  a  half  hitch  with  the  Fig.  25  stand- 
ing parts  A  and  B  around  the  bights  C  and  D  and  it  will  be  like 
Fig.  26.  A  seizing  of  rope  yarn  around  the  bights  and  standing 
part  at  A  and  B,  Fig.  26,  makes  it  more  secure. 

Rolling  Hitch,  Fig.  27.— This  is  a  hitch  used  for  stoppering  a 
rope  and  is  a  very  good  method  of  clapping  a  tail  block  on  to  a 
reef  tackle.  Take  a  hitch  with  the  tail  or  stopper  around  the  rope, 
then  take  another  hitch  over  the  first,  passing  the  end  under  the 
standing  part  A,  then  twist  the  end  around  the  rope,  with  the  lay. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


39 


FANCY  KNOTS 

These  are  used  for  the  ends  of  lanyards,  man  and  ridge  ropes, 
yoke  lines,  etc.  First  is  the  Wall  knot,  Figs.  28  and  29.  Unlay  the 
end  of  a  rope,  and  with  the  strand  A,  Fig.  28,  form  a  bight,  hold 
it  down  at  the  side  B,  pass  the  end  of  the  next,  C  around  A,  the 
end  of  strand  D  around  C  and  through  the  bight  of  A,  haul  taut 
and  the  knot  is  made  as  in  Fig.  29. 


29. 


WALL     KNOT 


This  can  be  crowned  by  taking  strand  A,  Fig.  30,  and  laying 
it  over  the  top  of  the  knot.  Then  lay  B  over  A,  and  C  over  B, 
and  through  the  bight  of  A  and  haul  taut.  This  is  called  a  single 
crown. 

A  double  wall  and  double  crown  is  made  by  letting  the  strands 
follow  their  own  parts  around,  first  walling  and  then  crowning, 
as  in  Fig,  31.  Be  careful  to  put  a  whipping  around  the  rope  when 
the  strands  are  opened  out,  as  in  Fig.  28.  This  is  also  called  a 
Stopper  Knot.  If  crowned  first  and  then  walled,  it  is  a  "Man  Rope 
Knot." 


40 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


FIC.  30. 


FIG.  31. 


FIC.   32. 


Matthew  Walker  Knot,  Fig.  32. — Open  the  strands  as  for  a  small 
knot.  Take  the  end  A  around  the  rope  and  through  its  own  bight, 
the  strand  B  underneath  through  the  bight  of  A,  and  through  its 
own  bight,  and  the  strand  C  underneath  through  the  bights  of 
strands  A  and  B,  and  haul  taut.  This  knot  is  mostly  used  for  the 
ends  of  lanyards. 


FICL  33. 


Flo.    34* 


FIC.  35. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


41 


A  Diamond  Knot,  Figs.  33  and  34. — Unlay  the  end  of  the  rope 
rather  more  than  for  a  Matthew  Walker  Knot,  and  form  three 
bights  of  the  strands,  holding  them  down  as  in  Fig.  33.  Then 
take  strand  A  over  strand  B  and  through  the  bight  of  strand  C, 
take  strand  B  over  C  and  through  the  bight  of  A  and  C  over  A, 
and  through  the  bight  of  B,  haul  taut,  and  lay  the  strands  up 
again.  The  knot  appears  as  in  Fig.  34. 

A  double  diamond  knot  is  made  by  leading  the  strands  through 
two  single  bights,  the  ends  coming  out  at  the  top  of  the  knot, 
and  leading  the  last  strand  through  two  double  bights.  Then  lay 
the  strands  up  as  before,  when  it  will  be  like  Fig.  35. 


FIG.  36. 


FIG.  37. 


Sprit  Sail  Sheet  Knot,  Figs.  36  and  37. — This  is  made  by  un- 
laying the  two  ends  of  a  rope,  placing  the  two  parts  together,  mak- 
ing a  bight  with  strand  1.  Proceed  to  make  a  Wall  knot  with  the 
strands,  precisely  as  a  single  wall  knot  is  made  with  three  strands, 
putting  the  second  over  the  first  strand,  the  third  over  the  second, 
fourth  over  the  third,  fifth  over  the  fourth,  the  sixth  over  the  fifth, 
and  through  the  bight  made  by  the  first,  and  haul  taut.  It  is 
crowned  by  taking  two  strands  across  the  top  of  the  knot,  passing 
the  other  strands  alternately  under  and  over  these  two.  To  double 
wall,  pass  the  strands  after  crowning,  beginning  with  1,  under  the 
bights  or  wallings,  as  they  are  called  by  sailors,  on  the  left  of 
them,  and  through  the  same  bights,  when  the  ends  will  come  up 
for  the  second  crowning.  To  do  this,  follow  the  lead  of  the  first 
crowning,  the  same  as  directed  with  three  strands.  This  knot  is 
often  used  as  a  stopper  knot  in  the  Navy  and  Merchant  Service. 
Remember  to  wall  against  the  lay  of  the  rope.  Thus,  for  a  hawser 
laid  rope,  wall  from  right  to  left. 


42 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


A  Stopper  Knot,  Fig.  38,  is  simply  double  walling,  without 
crowning,  a  three  strand  rope  against  the  lay,  and  whipping  the 
ends  of  the  strands  as  in  Fig.  38. 


FIG.  38. 


FIG.  39. 


FIG.  40. 


FIG.  41. 


Turk's  Head,  Fig.  39  and  40,  is  an  ornamental  knot  for  man 
ropes,  yoke  lines,  ridge  ropes,  etc.  With  signal  halliard,  or  log 
line,  take  a  clove  hitch  around  the  rope  to  be  ornamented,  bring 
the  bight  A  under  the  bight  B,  Fig.  39,  and  take  the  end  up 
through  it,  make  another  cross  with  the  bights,  and  take  the  end 
down  and  it  will  be  like  Fig.  40.  This  is  a  Turk's  head  of  two  lays. 
It  may  have  three,  or  more,  according  to  taste,  by  following  the 
lead  around,  as  already  described. 

A  Grommet,  Fig.  41,  is  made  out  of  a  single  strand  of  rope; 
bring  the  two  «nds  together,  forming  a  ring  the  size  wanted.  Lay 
up  one  end,  twisting  it  in  and  out,  when  it  meets  the  outer  end 
take  an  overhand  knot  and  tuck  the  ends  through  the  strands,  as 
in  the  long  splice.  Used  for  block  strops,  handles  of  sea  chests, 
snotter  for  a  sprit,  etc.  They  may  be  parcelled  and  served,  if 
wanted  to  look  very  neat. 


B 


FIG.  42. 


To  Lengthen  a  Rope  for  the  Head  and  Foot  of  a  Sail,  Fig.  42. 
— Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  give  an  extra  cloth,  and  as  it  is 
not  always  convenient  to  send  the  sail  on  shore  to  have  this  done, 
it  is  well  to  know  how  to  do  it.  Most  vessels  have  a  spare  bolt 
or  two  of  canvas,  and  there  is  always  some  one  among  the  crew 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


43 


who  understands  how  to  handle  a  palm  and  needle.  Strip  the 
canvas  off  four  cloths;  if  it  is  a  3 -inch  rope  allow  2  feet  for  splic- 
ing, which,  with  the  width  of  the  cloth,  inclusive  of  seams,  will 
be  ample.  Cut  the  strands  at  equal  distances  apart,  at  the 
places  marked  A,  B  and  C;  Fig.  42.  Take  strand  A,  and  unlay  it 
to  C.  Then  take  strand  B,  and  unlay  it  to  C.  It  is  better  to  count 
the  lays  or  twists,  so  as  to  avoid  cutting  the  same  strand  twice; 


MO.  43. 


C  strand  should  be  cut  last.  Now  draw  the  rope  apart,  as  in  Figs. 
43  and  44.  Marry  the  strand  A,  Fig.  43,  to  the  strand  C,  Fig.  44, 
then  lay  up  the  strand  B,  Fig.  43,  in  the  lays  of  strand  A,  Fig.  43, 
and  it  will  present  the  appearance  of  Fig.  45.  Take  a  strand  a 
little  over  three  times  the  length  of  the  width  of  the  cloth  of  the 
sail,  and  marry  one  end  to  the  strand  A,  and  lay  it  up  in  the 
space  left  by  A  and  C,  and  marry  the  other  end  to  strand  C. 
Then  splice  all  the  ends,  as  in  a  long  splice,  whip  the  ends  of 
the  strands,  and  cut  off  within  about  an  inch  of  the  rope.  Stretch 
the  splice  well  before  cutting  the  ends  of  the  strands.  A  good  rule 
is  to  take  eight  times  the  circumference  of  the  rope  for  splicing, 
that  would  be  about  four  times  each  side  of  the  centre  strand  that 
has  to  be  cut.  This  is  in  addition  to  the  width  of  the  extra  cloth. 
Marrying  two  ends  of  a  rope  or  strand,  is  merely  sewing  them  to- 
gether with  sewing  twine. 


A    B 


FIG.  45. 


Putting  a  New  Strand  in  a  Rope,  Fig.  46. — This  is  necessary 
when  a  strand  is  chafed  through  in  the  one  part  while  the  rest 
of  the  rope  is  good.  Cut  the  strand  at  the  chafe,  unlay  it  a  couple 
of  feet  each  way,  then  take  a  new  strand,  same  size  rope,  and 
lay  up  in  the  place  of  the  old  strand.  Take  an  overhand  knot 
with  ends  and  tuck  them  in  as  in  a  long  splice. 


FIG.  46. 


44 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


To  Splice  a  Three  and  Four  Strand  Rope  Together. — Unlay  a 
long  splice,  one  strand  of  the  three  strand  rope,  and  fill  up  the 
space  with  one  of  the  strands  of  the  four  strand  rope,  then  un- 
lay a  strand  of  the  four  strand  rope,  and  lay  in  the  space  a  strand 
of  the  three  strand  rope  to  the  distance  wanted.  Then  you  have 
two  strands  of  the  four  strand  rope,  and  one  of  the  three  strand 
rope  left.  Divide  the  single  strand  in  two,  and  knot  it  to  one  of 
the  strands  of  the  four  strand  rope.  Unlay  the  other  strand  and 
fill  in  with  the  other  half  of  the  divided  strand,  knot  them  to- 
gether and  tuck  them  in  as  in  an  ordinary  long  splice.  Always 
stretch  a  splice  well  before  cutting  the  ends  of  the  strands  pro- 
jecting when  finished. 


FIG.  47. 


French  Shroud  Knot,  Fig.  47. — This  is  a  neat  way  of  making 
a  shroud  knot.  It  is  done  by  crowning  backwards,  or  left  handed, 
the  strands  of  each  end,  then  pass  the  ends  as  they  lie  from  you, 
to  the  left  of  those  that  fall  down  towards  you,  haul  taut,  and 
they  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  47.  The  ends  may  be  either  tucked  in 
as  in  splicing  or  can  be  scraped,  marled  down,  and  served  as 
fancy  dictates. 


FIG.  48. 


Worming  a  Rope,  Fig.  48. — This  is  done  by  winding  spunyarn 
into  the  space  between  the  strands,  so  as  to  make  it  smooth. 

Serving  and  Parcelling,  Fig.  49,  is  done  to  prevent  a  rope  from 
being  chafed.  Strips  of  old  canvas  are  first  tarred,  and  then 
wrapped  around  with  the  lay  of  the  rope,  the  whole  being  kept 
in  its  place  by  placing  marling  or  spunyarn  around  the  parcelling, 
and  hitching  each  turn,  as  C  in  Fig.  49.  The  serving  mallet  is 
laid  with  its  groove  on  the  rope,  a  turn  is  taken  with  the  spunyarn 
around  the  rope  and  head  of  the  mallet  around  the  side  next 
you,  and  two  turns  around  the  other  side,  and  twist  it  around  the 
handle;  get  another  hand  to  pass  the  ball  A  around  the  rope,  while 
you  heave  around  the  mallet.  The  four  last  turns  of  the  service 
must  have  the  end  of  the  spunyarn  put  through  them  and  hauled 
taut,  which  secures  it. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


45 


PIC.  49. 


Pointing  a  Rope,  Fig.  50. — Whip  the  rope  about  6  or  8  inches 
from  the  end,  according  to  its  size.  Unlay  the  strands,  and  open 
out  the  yarns,  take  the  inside  yarns  and  form  what  is  called  the 
heart.  The  outside  yarns  must  be  turned  down,  and  the  heart 
scraped  off  towards  the  end  with  a  knife,  and  then  marled  down. 


FIG.  50. 


Then  take  the  outside  yarns  and  lay  them  one  up  and  one  down 
alternately,  knot  the  filling  with  a  timber  hitch  over  the  upper 
ones,  take  a  couple  of  turns  and  pass  the  end  between  both,  to 
jamb  it  before  hauling  the  last  turn  taut,  then  bring  the  upper 
yarns  down,  and  lay  the  lower  ones  up;  pass  the  filling,  and  pro- 
ceed as  already  described,  hauling  the  yarns  taut  after  each  round, 
and  passing  the  first  turn  of  the  filling  under  one  or  two  of  the 
upper  ends  ir.  advance  each  time,  instead  of  over  them.  This  hides 
the  hitch  when  brought  up.  In  finishing  off,  securely  hitch  the 
lower  yarns.  Cut  the  upper  ones  off,  and  the  lower  ones  after 
you  have  taken  two  turns  of  the  filling.  Haul  the  bight  of  the 
yarns  close  down,  and  hammer  the  point  well  after  every  turn,  to 
make  it  smooth  and  fiat. 


46 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


FIG.  51. 


A  Selvagee  Strop,  Fig.  51,  is  made  by  laying  a  number  of  rope 
yarns  in  a  bight  and  then  keeping  them  together  with  spunyarn 
or  marling  wound  around  as  above. 

Seizing. — To  fasten  ropes  or  different  parts  of  rope  together, 
by  winding  rope  yarns,  marling  or  spunyarn  around  them.  Blocks 
are  generally  stropped  with  a  round  seizing. 


FIG.  52., 


To  Make  a  Round  Seizing,  Figs.  52  and  53. — Make  a  slip  knot 
in  one  end  of  the  marling  or  spunyarn,  take  a  turn  around  the 
two  parts  of  the  rope  you  want  to  nip  together,  pull  it  well 
taut,  using  your  marlmg-spike  as  a  lever,  by  winding  the  spun- 
yarn  around  it  and  drawing  it  back  with  the  point  of  the  spike 
against  the  rope,  take  six,  eight,  or  nine  turns,  according  to  size 
of  rope,  then  tuck  the  end  through  the  last  turn,  Fig.  52,  then 
take  five  or  six  turns  over  the  others;  these  are  called  riders,  and 
should  be  one  less  turn  than  those  underneath.  Tuck  the  end 
of  the  spunyarn  up  through  the  seizing,  and  take  a  couple  of 
cross  turns  between  the  rope  around  the  seizing,  and  jamb  and 
knot  the  end,  after  heaving  it  well  taut,  as  Fig.  53.  When  this 
seizing  is  on  the  two  ends  of  a  rope  it  is  called  an  End  Seizing. 
If  upon  the  bight,  Fig.  53,  an  Eye  Seizing. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


47 


FIC.  54. 

Racking  or  Nippering,  Fig.  54,  is  used  to  jamb  the  two  parts 
*>f  a  tackle  fall  together  when  the  purchase  wants  lengthening, 
or  nautically,  "fleeting."  It  is  made  by  cross  turns,  and  then 
round  turns  over  all,  and  tied  with  a  reef  knot. 


WIRE  RIGGING 


Wire  is  now  extensively  used  for  the  standing  rigging  of  all 
classes  of  vessels. 

The  great  advantage  wire  has  over  hemp  for  shrouds,  back- 
stays, etc.,  is,  it  presents  less  surface  to  the  wind,  wire-rope  of 
one-third  the  thickness  of  hemp  being  nearly  if  not  quite  as  strong; 
it  looks  much  lighter,  and  gives  a  craft  a  neat  look  about  her 
upper  works,  besides  being  more  lasting.  Iron  wire  should  be 
galvanized,  or  it  will  soon  perish.  Copper  wire  may  have  a  coat 
of  paint  over  it,  as  that  keeps  the  verdigris  from  eating  into  the 
strands,  thereby  weakening  the  rope.  Copper  wire  is  very  little 
used,  except  in  small  yachts. 

When  selecting  the  ordinary  wire  rigging,  it  is  always  best 
to  break  off  a  piece  at  either  end  of  the  coil;  if  the  strands,  or 
rather  yarns,  present  a  sparkling  crystal  appearance,  it  shows 
that  there  is  a  want  of  fibre  in  the  iron,  and  therefore  should  not 
be  trusted  when  a  great  strain  is  required.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the 
broken  part  is  a  dull  grey  color,  with  a  stringy  look,  it  is  all  right, 
and,  if  properly  galvanized,  will  last  a  long  time.  It  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  galvanizing  reduces  the  strength  of  iron  some 
20  per  cent.,  so  that  must  be  taken  into  account  when  calculating 
the  strain  it  will  have  to  bear. 

The  operation  of  splicing  wire-rope  is  so  varied,  that  it  would 
take  up  too  much  space  to  describe  all  the  different  ways  of  do- 
ing so.  Scarcely  two  seamen  will  be  found  to  splice  it  alike.  The 
easiest  way,  consistent  with  strength,  is  as  follows:  Open  out 
the  strands  as  for  a  long  splice,  and  lay  them  up  in  the  same 
way.  Instead,  however,  of  knotting  the  strands  together  with  an 
overhand  knot,  separate  each  opposite  strand  into  two  parts  and 
cross  each  part,  tucking  the  ends  under  and  over  the  laid  up 
strands  until  the  ends  are  expended.  Worm,  parcel,  and  serve 
over,  and  the  splice  will  last  as  long  as  the  rope  itself. 

A  three-quarter  inch  wire-rope  is  about  equal  to  2  inch  hemp 
rope  in  strength. 

One  inch  wire  equals  2%  inch  hemp. 

Two   inch  wire   equals   5   inch  hemp. 

Two-and-a-half  inch  wire  equals  6%  inch  hemp  rope;  and 
so  on  in  the  same  proportion. 

page  57  for  weight  and  strength  of  Manila  Rope. 


48 


THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 


Wire  Rope.     Plate  1. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


49 


Fig.! 

I5_f  Method 
Long  Splice  in  Wire  Rope  0) 


^ji^^ 

>£™TT^ 


Fig.  2 

&  Method 
Long  Splice  in  WireRope.(Z) 


Fig.3. 

2  4  Method. 
Long  Splice  in  Wire. 


FigA 

2  ^Method. 

long  Splice  in  Wire. 


Wire  Rope.      Plate  2. 


•">0  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

WORKING  IN  WIRE  ROPE 

Wire  rope  is  usually  six-stranded  wound  over  a  hemp  heart. 

In  splicing,  we  may  work  with  the  strands  separately  or  in 
pairs.  The  work  calls  for  special  appliances  and  for  a  degree  of 
skill  such  as  can  be  acquired  only  by  long  practice  under  expert 
instruction.  Something  may  be  learned  from  careful  description, 
and  much  more  from  an  occasional  visit  to  a  rigging  loft;  but  the 
facilities  which  are  available  on  ship-board  do  not  permit  of  do- 
ing such  work  as  is  possible  with  a  rigger's  bench,  a  turning-in 
machine,  etc.  Where  a  heavy  rope  is  to  be  bent  around  a  thimble 
or  the  parts  otherwise  brought  together  for  splicing  or  seizing,  a 
rigger's-screw  is  needed.  In  the  absence  of  this,  a  vise  may  be 
used,  but  less  conveniently. 

In  tucking  the  strands  of  a  splice,  the  lay  of  the  rope  is  opened 
out  and  the  spike  left  in,  holding  the  strands  apart,  until  the  tuck 
has  been  made.  For  dragging  the  strands  through,  a  jigger  is 
used  on  each  one,  the  body  of  the  rope  being  held  by  another  jig- 
ger or  a  lashing.  After  a  tuck,  the  parts  of  the  rope  are  ham- 
mered down  tightly  upon  each  other.  Wire-cutters  are  used  for 
cutting  off  ends. 

Fig.  4,  Plate  1,  shows  the  tools  used  in  working  in  wire  on 
shipboard. 

Plate  1,  An  Eye-Splice  In  Wire,  Fig.  3.— Get  the  rope  on  a 
stretch,  allow  from  18  to  24  inches  from  the  end  for  splicing,  and 
put  on  a  mark  with  a  couple  of  turns  of  twine.  Measure  along 
the  rope  from  this  mark  the  length  of  the  eye  (once  and  one-half 
the  round  of  the  thimble)  and  put  on  another  similar  mark.  Paint 
with  red  lead,  worm,  parcel,  paint  again,  and  double  serve  between 
the  marks.  Now  come  up  the  stretch  and  seize  the  thimble  in, 
breaking  the  rope  around  by  the  rigger's-screw  and  putting  on  a 
good  racking  seizing  around  both  parts.  Come  up  the  screw,  un- 
lay the  end  of  the  wire,  and  cut  out  the  heart  close  to  the  service. 
Now,  with  the  thimble  toward  you,  counting  from  right  to  left 
1,  2,  3,  etc.,  stick  No.  4  strand  from  right  to  left  under 
the  upper  strands  of  the  rope  just  clear  of  the  service,  open- 
ing the  strands  by  a  spike.  Haul  through  by  hand.  In  the  same 
manner— under  two  and  over  one  strand— tuck  the  remaining 
strands,  in  the  following  order:  3,  5,  2,  6,  1.  Now,  commencing 
with  any  strand,  tuck  again  whole  and  haul  through  by  means  of 
a  jigger.  Hammer  the  strands  down  in  place,  cut  each  strand 
down  to  one-half  size  and  tuck  again,  hauling  through  with  a  jig- 
ger as  before.  Cut  the  strands  down  to  one-quarter  and  tuck 
again.  Hammer  down  all  strands  and  cut  off  the  wire  with  a 
wire-cutter. 

Plate  2.  A  Long  Splice  in  Wire.  Figs.  1  and  2. — Put  on  a 
good  seizing  six  to  ten  feet — according  to  the  size  of  the  rope — 
from  the  end  of  one  of  the  ropes  to  be  spliced,  and  a  similar  seiz- 
ing one  to  two  feet  from  the  end  of  the  other  rope.  Unlay,  open 
out  the  strands,  cut  out  the  heart,  and  marry  the  ends  together 
with  strands  interlacing.  Cut  the  seizing  on  the  short  end.  Un- 
lay one  of  the  short  strands,  following  it  up  in  the  same  lay  with 
the  opposite  long  strand,  leaving  end  enough  to  tuck.  Continue 
in  the  same  manner  with  the  remaining  strands,  except  as  to 
the  distance  to  which  they  are  laid  up,  this  distance  being  varied 
in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  successive  pairs  an  equal  distance 
apart,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Commencing  with  any  two  strands, 
half  knot  them  together  (full  size),  then  divide  each  into  three 
parts,  and  tuck  these  parts  separately  as  shown;  or,  cut  put  a 
few  inches  of  the  heart  and  insert  the  ends  of  the  strands  in  its 


THE   MERCHANT   MARINE   MANUAL 


51 


|  Parcelling-'  jr  Serving? 

Fig.  3       Worming,  Parcelling  and  Serving. 


Wire  Rope.     Plate  3. 


52  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

place  in  the  centre  of  the  rope.  When  a  splice  is  to  be  served  the 
latter  way  of  finishing  it  off  answers  very  well,  but  not  otherwise. 

Note  that  this  splice  is  made  by  working  always  to  the  right 
the  strands  of  A  (long  strands)  being  all  worked  into  B. 

A  Long  Splice  in  Wire,  Figs.  3  and  4  (second  methods). — Put 
on  a  good  seizing  an  equal  distance  from  the  ends  of  the  ropes  to 
be  spliced,  from  six  to  ten  feet,  according  to  the  size  of  the  rope 
Unlay  the  strands  in  pairs,  cut  out  the  heart,  marry  together  (Fig. 
3),  and  lay  up  the  strands  in  the  same  manner  as  in  an  ordinary 
three-stranded  long  splice  in  hemp,  so  that  the  strands  meet  an 
equal  distance  apart  (Fig.  4).  Then  take  any  two  ends  (double 
strands),  separate  the  strands,  unlay  one  of  these  single  strands, 
of  A  for  example,  and  follow  up  in  the  lay  with  one  of  the  corre- 
sponding single  strands  of  B.  The  other  single  strand  of  A  in  the 
original  pair,  is  left,  with  the  corresponding  single  strand  of  B 
lying  along  side  of  it.  This  is  repeated  with  each  of  the  original 
double  strands.  There  are  now  six  sets  of  single  strands  of  A  and 
B  lying  together  at  different  points  of  the  rope,  ready  for  tucking. 
The  splice  is  finished  off  either  by  overhand  knotting  these  ends, 
or  by  inserting  the  ends  in  place  of  the  heart. 

In  view  of  the  difficulty  and  delay  involved  in  splicing  wire 
rope,  it  is  often  convenient  to  make  use  of  other  methods  for  mak- 
ing an  eye  or  for  joining  two  ropes  temporarily.  Your  attention  is 
called  to  the  use  which  may  be  made  of  the  clamps  shown  in  Plate 
4.  These  are  quickly  and  easily  applied,  and  where  several  of  them 
are  used  together,  they  may  give  nearly  or  quite  as  strong  a  con- 
nection as  a  splice. 

Plate  3.  A  Short  Splice  in  Wire,  Fig.  1.  Put  on  a  good  seiz- 
ing two  or  three  feet — according  to  the  size  of  the  rope — from  the 
end  of  one  of  the  ropes  to  be  spliced,  and  a  similar  seizing  one  or 
two  feet  from  the  end  of  the  other  rope.  Unlay  the  ends  and  open 
out  the  strands,  cutting  out  the  heart  close  to  the  seizings.  Marry 
them  together  and  clap  on  a  temporary  seizing  around  the  short 
ends  of  the  body  of  the  rope,  to  hold  the  parts  close  together. 
Commencing  with  any  one  of  the  long  strands,  tuck  each  in  suc- 
cession over  one  and  under  two  strands,  opening  out  the  lay  with 
a  spike.  Tuck  the  remaining  strands  in  the  same  manner;  twice 
whole  strands,  once  one-half,  and  once  one-quarter,  hauling 
through  with  a  jigger  each  time.  Then  turn  the  splice  around, 
cutting  the  temporary  seizing  on  the  short  ends,  and  tuck  the 
short  strands  once  one-half  and  once  one-quarter,  heaving  them 
through  with  a  jigger.  Hammer  down  all  parts  and  trim  off  the 
ends. 

A  Spanish  Windlass,  Fig  2.— For  heaving  two  parts  of  a  rope 
together.  With  heavy  ropes,  the  parts  may  be  hove  together  by 
power  of  some  kind,  such  as  a  Spanish  Windlass,  a  rigger's  screw, 
or  a  turning-in  machine. 

Worming,  Parcelling,  and  Serving.  (Plate  3.) — Rope  which  is 
to  be  exposed  to  the  weather  or  to  exceptionally  hard  usage  is 
protected  by  worming,  parcelling  and  serving. 

Parcelling  consists  of  wrapping  the  rope  spirally  with  long 
strips  of  canvas,  following  the  lay  of  the  rope,  and  overlapping 
like  the  shingles  on  a  roof  to  shed  moisture. 

Serving  consists  in  wrapping  small-stuff  snugly  over  the  par- 
celling, each  turn  being  hove  taut  as  possible  so  that  the  whole 
forms  a  stiff  protecting  cover  for  the  rope.  A  "serving  mallet" 
is  used  for  passing  the  turns,  each  turn  being  hove  taut  by  the 
leverage  of  the  handle  as  illustrated  in  Plate  3. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


53 


Wire  Rope,  Showing  Hemp  Core 
Six  stranded  around  a  hemp  heart. 


Making  an  eye  or  a  temporary  splice  by  use  of  clamps 
These  clips  were  tested  and  broke  under  a  strain  of  54,000  Ibs. 

Wire  Rope.     Plate  4. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


PARTS  OF  A  BLOCK. 


This  diagram  shows  the  various  parts  which,  placed  in  proper 
position  make  it  possible  with  other  similar  appliances  and  the  use 
of  attached  ropes  to  handle  heavy  weights,  raising  and  lowering  the 
same,  with  the  smallest  amount  of  effort.  The  parts  are  the  pin  or 
axle  (a),  on  which  the  sheave  turns,  the  sheave  or  wheel  (b)  over 
which  the  rope  passes  and  the  shell  (d)  or  outside  of  block.  The; 
strap,  which  is  not  shown,  is  made  of  rope  or  iron  passed  around 
the  shell,  sinking  into  the  grooves  shown  and  when  used  as  a  single 
block  is  fitted  with  a  hook  at  the  end  of  the  strap. 

The  sheave  may  be  of  metal  or  of  a  very  hard  wood  called 
Lignum- Vitae.  If  of  wood  it  is  bouched  (c),  which  is  fitting  with 
metal  inserts  through  which  the  pin  passes.  In  patent  blocks  the 
bouching  is  fitted  with  roller  bearings  as  at  E. 


Blocks  and  ropes  when  assembled  together  ready  for  use  are 
called  Tackles  and  examination  of  the  diagram  will  show  many  of 
the  methods  used  to  increase  the  lifting  power  and  lessen  the  man- 
power or  exertion  required  in  lifting  or  hauling. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  adding  blocks  slows  up  the  opera- 
tion of  the  tackle  and  also  causes  the  accumulation  of  ,rope  (or  fall) 
and  may  easily  be  carried  too  far.  In  other  words,  get  enough 
power  but  not  too  much. 

The  amount  of  lifting  power  of  a  tackle  is  called  its  Purchase 
and  with  a  single  whip  or  block  above  (Fig.  44)  you  must  pull  with 
a  strain  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  object  (W)  to  be  raised.  With  a 
block  at  (W)  as  in  (Fig.  45)  and  the  block  above  as  in  (Fig.  44)  or 
rigged  as  shown  in  (Fig.  46)  only  one-half  the  pull  is  required. 
Rigged  as  shown  in  Fig.  47  and  with  the  rope  returned  through  the 
upper  block  as  shown  in  Fig.  48  only  one-third  the  power  is  neces- 
sary and  so  on  following  the  different  tackle«  shown,  the  letter  and 
figure  under  each  weight  giving  the  degree  by  which  the  lifting 
power  is  multiplied. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


55 


/T\ 


Fig..    45 


W 
P-l 


W 
P-2 


w 

P-5 


Purchase  by  Block  and  Tackle.     Plate  1. 


56 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


Fig.     56 


Fig.     GO 


Blocks  and  Tackles      Plate  2. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  57 

Names  of  Tackles  shown.    (See  page  66). 

Pig.  44 — Single  whip. 

Fig.  45 — Same,  with  Lower  Block. 

Fig.  46 — Gun  Tackle  Purchase. 

Fig.  47 — Inverted  Gun  Tackle. 

Fig.  48— A  Luff  Tackle. 

Fig.  49 — Inverted   Luff   Tackle. 

Fig.  50 — Double  Purchase. 

Fig.  51 — Inverted  Double  Purchase. 

Fig.  52 — Single  Spanish  Burton. 

Fig.  53 — Double  Spanish  Burton. 

Fig.  54 — "Bell's"   Purchase. 

Fig.  55— Luff  upon  Luff. 

The  (W)  suspended  is  in  each  case  the  weight  to  be  raised. 
Figs.  54-55  are  made  fast  below  and  the  purchase  is  downward  as 
for  booms  or  yards. 

Rules  to  determine  power  required. 

Rule  1.  Divide  the  weight  of  the  object  to  be  raised  by  the 
number  of  parts  of  rope  at  the  movable  block  or  blocks  and  the 
quotient  represents  the  amount  of  power  required. 

(It  must  be  remembered  that  a  fixed  or  stationary  block  adds 
nothing  to  the  lifting  power  of  a  tackle,  the  only  help  coming  from 
the  movable  blocks  and  a  liberal  allowance,  about  one-fifth,  must 
be  made  for  friction.) 

Rule  2.  The  amount  of  purchase  required  to  raise  a  given 
weight  with  a  given  power  is  found  by  dividing  the  weight  by  the 
power  and  the  quotient  shows  the  number  of  parts  of  rope  to  be 
attached  to  the  lower  block. 

Rule  3.  The  weight  that  a  rope  will  bear  or  is  "good  for"  mul- 
tiplied by  the  number  of  parts  of  rope  at  the  movable  blocks,  gives 
the  "power"  of  the  tackle  or  the  weight  it  will  raise. 

Rule  4.  Always  rig  with  the  block  carrying  the  larger  number 
of  parts  of  rope  as  the  movable  block  and  nearest  to  the  object  to 
be  raised. 

Rule  5.  It  is  well  occasionally  to  shift  ends  of  the  pin  in  the 
block  as  it  wears  unequally  and  the  sheave  sometimes  binds  in  the 
shell. 

STRENGTH  OF  ROPE  (Manila). 

Circumference  (inches)        M      *A       \       IK     \1A     \1A     \ZA      2       21A     2Y*     2%      3 
Diameter  of  Rope  (inches)  fV       i      T\       f        &       \        ^      f-         I        j|       1        1 
Breaking  Stress  (pounds)  405  585   700  90011701800229532003750405060507200 
Weight  (Ibs.  per  foot)      .035.045.055.065  .075  .085  .110  .140  .170  .200  .240  .275 

This  computation  is  for  new  rope  and,  to  have  a  safe  working  load,  not  more  than  one-third 
of  this  weight  should  be  suspended.  Rope  perishes  rapidly  and  if  exposed  to  the  weather  or 
stored  where  (dampness  or  mildew  can  reach  it,  soon  becomes  unreliable. 

Tackles  as  shown. 

Fig.  56— A  Single  Whip. 
Fig.  57 — A  Runner. 
Fig.  58 — Gun  Tackle  Purchase. 
Fig.  59— A  Luff  Tackle. 
Fig.  60 — A  Twofold  Purchase. 
Fig.  61 — Single  Spanish  Burton. 
Fig.  62 — Jeers  (with  treble  purchase). 

A  block  with  one  sheave  is  termed  single-fold,  with  two  sheaves  double-fold,  with  three 
sheaves  treble-fold,  etc. 


58 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE  CAT  RIG 


NAMES  OF  SPARS,  SAILS,  RIGGING,  ETC. 


1  Mainsail 

2  Stem 

3  Rudder 

4  Tiller 

5  Mainmast 

6  Forestay 

7  Main  Boom 

8  Main  Gaff 

9  Truck 


10  Throat  Halyards 

11  Reef  Cringles 

12  Reef  Points 

13  Topping  Lift 

14  Leach  of  Sail 

15  Luff  of  Sail 

16  Peak  Halyards  ' 

17  Main  Sheet 

18  Head  of  Sail 


19  Foot  of  Sail 

20  Cockpit 

21  Mast  Hoops 

22  Tack  of  Sail 

23  Throat  of  Sail 

24  Peak  of  Sail 

25  Clew  of  Sail 


THE:    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


5ft 


o 


- 

O 


r- 

Cft       .3  H 

— 


^  pq 


O 


60 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE  CUTTER  RIG 


NAMES  OF  SPARS,  SAILS,  RIGGING,  ETC. 

©RARQ 

1  Lowermast       3  Bowsprit  5  Gaff  7  Spinnaker  Boom 

2  Topmast  4  Main  Boom      6  Topsail  Sprit     8  Tiller 

RIGGING     AND      ROF»ES 


9  Crosstrees 

10  Shrouds 

11  Topmast  Shrouds 

12  Topping  Lift 

13  Masthead  Runner 

and  Tackle 

14  Forestay 

15  Topmast  Stay 


16  Bobstay  23 

17  Bobstay  Fall  24 

18  Spinnaker  Boom  25 

Topping  Lift  26 

19  Spinnaker  Boom  27 

Brace  28 

20  Topmast  Backstay  29 

21  Reef  Pennant  30 

22  Truck 


Ensign 
Channels 
Mainsheet 

Spinnaker  Boom  Guy 
Clew  of  Sprit  Topsail 
Tack  of  Sprit  Topsail 
Tack  Line  of  Pendant 
Sprit  Topsail  Halyards 


A  Mainsail       B  Foresail       C  Jib         D  Sprit  Topsail       E  Jib  Topsail 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


61 


.2P 

£ 


.SP 

U, 


62 


THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


H 

O 
O 

w 

CD 

H 
CD 


O 
H 


EH 

CD      <J 

9  13 


o  £-1 

5  ' 

£    i 
!?    f 

g  i 
a 

KH 
CD 
CD^ 


-c   c 

errs 


•S  —  jg  1?  _£  ^  >>  *  -2 


t 


DCS 


E  3 
« 

li 


*  5 


CD 

O 

CD 


8-8-fa 

•i.i  .I? 


1* 

£cn 


^  <CQU 


64 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


65 


», 

•8    P* 

£  i&I*! 

is  1 1 ilm 

!^D^_S 

jj.a.a.3.8.8  g 
&&I&& 

vOr^ooo^o— c^ 

c^>  en  cr>  m  TJ- -^- -^ 

S, 

ii  |>s  }|| 


I  i     o^  o «—  <N  m  TJ-  m 

j  CslCOCOCCicOf^cn 


=1-1 

|JS      S» 

S^dSHh 
ai  s  a  8-l-|-a 

liSJJJIs 


66 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


e 
e 
S 
S 
U 


I 


I 


- 


THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 


67 


n 
I 


ill 


X 

H 

X 


*3   v 


68 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


i      S.9.S  H  H  N  •  V  V. 

-i 


7     -N«<«- 


70 


THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 


z 


l-JUfrtL 

CQ  g^03^  3  &"3raT! 

^iTfbffl  &&o2j 


S§SSS"g-i 

i  m  £,%  Si  "*  5-  ^  •*  "* 


ill* 

COpQ    C    c 


.8     81 

y|    15 


rr  s « b%t\.rZ-a«a  »DQ  s 
l    l^SSSSS  SCQHH 

M  5    <«    N    N    N    N    N    N    «    «    « 


I'll        "^  •*  irivo   r-oo   O  O    "-1   i 

x      !          NWWNINMN'^'^' 
''1 


ivo  t^oo  a  o  M  i 


g 

«      &§• 

^1J    HH 


1    J,        Jl    HH 

^  *l-«*J«ii 

sSrStilJ-SwSSJ 

M_«  jj  j_  en  ^  •  7  jg  OQ  -J  D 

123 1  Si  I II " " 

in^^UiUu^UcniJui 


•*  ir,vo    t>00   O  O    M 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


71 


=11 


Hf-HH 

Jljlll 

g  g  g  S  £  8JS 

N    N    N    N    N    N    C 

.a. a. a. a. a. a  s 

^^^^^^c^ 


72 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


73 


74  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

NOTES  ON  WOODEN  SHIP-BUILDING. 


(The  numbers  in  brackets  refer  to  the  nomenclature  of  the  ship.) 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  in  the  building  of  a  ship  is  the 
situation  of  the  spot  upon  which  it  is  proposed  to  carry  on  the 
work  with  reference  to  the  difficulties  which  are  to  be  overcome, 
first,  in  procuring  the  necessary  material  to  be  used  in  her  con- 
struction, and,  second,  in  launching  her  when  finished  and  ready 
to  be  rigged.  The  most  suitable  location  for  a  ship-yard  with 
reference  to  the  second  part  of  this  problem  is  by  the  side  of  a 
river  or  inland  bay  where  there  is  deep  water  close  to  shore  and  a 
considerable  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide.  The  character  of  the  ground 
should  be  such  as  to  furnish  a  foundation  sufficiently  firm  to  sus- 
tain the  whole  weight  of  the  new  ship,  so  that  no  settling  will 
take  place  during  the  progress  of  the  work.  In  the  case  of  heavy 
vessels  it  is  generally  found  necessary  to  drive  piles  into  the 
ground  for  the  support  of  the  ground-ways  upon  which  the  ship 
rests  while  building. 

Before  the  work  of  actual  construction  begins  the  designer  pre- 
pares a  model  made  to  a  scale  of  from  %  to  y*  inch  to  a  foot,  and 
shaped  exactly  like  the  new  ship  is  to  be  when  built.  The  model 
is  usually  made  of  several  layers  of  different  colored  woods  firmly 
joined  together  longitudinally  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
work  of  "taking  off  the  lines"  in  the  preparation  of  the  plans. 
Measurements  are  now  very  accurately  taken  of  the  model,  en- 
larged according  to  the  scale  used,  and  transferred  to  the  floor  of 
a  large  room  called  the  "mold-loft,"  where  they  appear  as  sheer, 
half-breadth,  and  body  plans.  By  means  of  these  plans  light 
wooden  patterns  called  molds  are  made,  which  are  the  exact  shape 
of  every  timber  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  the  ship.  These 
molds  being  light  and  portable  are  often  sent  to  considerable  dis- 
tances from  the  ship-yard,  and  are  used  by  the  workmen  and  ship- 
wrights in  getting  out  the  timbers.  This  work  is  done  by  plac- 
ing the  molds  and  bevels  upon  each  separate  piece  of  rough  timber 
and  cutting  or  "lining"  it  to  the  shape  of  the  mold. 

When  the  preparatory  work  of  getting  out  the  timbers  is  finished, 
the  foundation  upon  which  the  vessel  is  to  rest  while  building  is 
laid  on  the  spot  selected  for  this  purpose.  First  to  go  down  are 
the  ground-ways,  which  consist  of  heavy  pieces  of  timber  resting 
on  the  ground,  or  on  the  piles  which  have  been  driven  into  the 
ground,  and  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  ship,  and  as  far 
into  the  water  as  may  be  necessary  to  furnish  a  track  or  bed- 
way  for  the  support  of  the  launching-ways.  On  top  of  the  ground- 
ways  piles  of  blocks  are  laid  about  5  feet  apart,  the  uppermost 
blocks  being  wedge-shaped  and  made  of  some  soft  straight-grained 
wood.  The  height  of  the  blocks  depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  work  which  is  to  be  done  on  the  bottom  of  the  ship  and  on 
various  conditions  which  will  govern  her  descent  into  the  water. 
Generally  speaking,  the  blocks  are  so  laid  that  when  the  keel  is  in 
place  it  will  form  an  angle  with  the  horizon  of  from  %  to  1  inch  to 
the  foot.  The  amount  of  inclination  depends  upon  the  size  of  the 
ship — a  large  vessel  not  requiring  as  much  inclination  as  a  smaller 
one  to  give  her  the  required  movement  toward  the  water  when 
the  time  of  launching  arrives. 

The  first  timber  laid  down  is  the  keel  111.  and  great  care  must 
be  taken  when  it  is  in  place  that  it  bears  equally  on  all  the  blocks. 
The  reason  for  this  will  be  obvious  when  its  importance,  as  the 
"backbone"  or  main  strengthening  piece  of  the  entire  frame,  is 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  75 

considered.  In  many  cases  the  stem  [34]  and  stern-post  [40], 
which  form  the  extremities  of  the  keel,  are  scarfed  and  fastened 
to  it  before  the  keel  is  laid  UD9n  the  blocks;  but  if  not.  they  are 
the  next  timbers  to  be  placed  in  position,  and  after  they  are  se- 
cured, work  is  begun  on  the  square-frame,  which  consists  of  all 
those  ribs  which  are  fastened  to  the  keel.  Beginning  with  the 
aftermost  rib  of  the  square-frame,  they  are  raised  from  the  ground 
by  means  of  a  derrick  and  set  in  position  across  the  keel,  to  which 
they  are  securely  bolted.  The  ribs  of  the  square-frame  are  placed 
about  2  feet  apart  from  centre  to  centre,  and  as  each  one  is  se- 
cured the  keel  is  slipped  down  toward  the  water,  until  finally, 
when  the  last  or  forward  rib  is  in  place,  the  keel  occupies  the 
place  on  the  blocks  which  it  will  retain  until  the  vessel  is  launched. 
As  the  work  progresses  timber  supports  called  shores  are  placed 
under  the  frame,  and  longitudinal  strips  of  planking  called  ribbands 
are  fastened  to  the  ribs  to  bind  them  all  together  and  keep  them 
in  shape.  The  keelson  [12]  is  next  laid  parallel  with  the  keel 
and  directly  over  it  and  on  top  of  the  frames.  It  is  secured  to  the 
keel  by  bolts,  which  pass  through  the  keelson,  the  floor-timbers, 
and  the  keel. 

Owing  to  the  form  of  the  ship,  which  gradually  becomes  sharper 
towards  the  stem  and  stern,  the  floor  is  lifted  from  a  level  line  and 
the  U-shaped  ribs  of  the  square-frame  can  no  longer  be  used. 
The  space  between  the  after  end  of  the  square-frame  and  the  stern- 
post  and  the  forward  end  of  the  square-frame  and  the  stem  is 
called  the  cant-frame.  The  ribs  in  those  spaces  are  called  for- 
ward- and  after-cants  [84].  Instead  of  being  joined  together  in  a 
U-shaped  form  and  laid  across  the  keel,  the  heels  of  the  cants 
abut  upon  the  sides  of  a  mass  of  timber  called  the  forward  and 
after  dead-wood  [36,  42]  which  is  bolted  to  the  keel,  stern-post  and 
stem.  The  cants  are  not  placed  perpendicularly  to  the  keel,  but 
incline  more  and  more  towards  the  extremities  of  the  vessel  as 
their  distance  from  the  square-frame  increases.  The  position  of 
their  tops  or  heads  is  accurately  marked  on  pieces  of  timber  called 
harpins,  which  are  made  to  conform  to  the  proposed  curve  of  the 
ship's  side  and  extend  from  the  tops  of  the  forward  and  after 
ribs  of  the  square-frame  to  the  stem  and  stern-post  respectively. 

After  the  frame  is  all  up  it  is  set  perfectly  square  with  the 
middle  line  of  the  ship  by  means  of  a  plummet  let  fall  from  the 
middle  point  of  cross  pieces  of  timber  which  join  the  tops  of  the 
frames  at  several  points  or  stations  to  the  middle  line  of  the  keel. 
Measurements  are  also  frequently  made  to  see  that  the  breadth 
of  beam  as  shown  by  the  half-breadth  plan  is  maintained  before 
the  final  fastenings  which  secure  the  frame  are  put  in.  The 
clamps*  [181  or  shelf-pieces  are  then  secured  in  their  places  inside 
the  frame  timbers,  and  the  frame  is  now  ready  for  the  planking 
[55-58]  and  ceiling  [17].  Beginning  at  the  keel,  the  outside  plank- 
ing is  worked  upward  without  a  stop  to  the  covering-board  or 
planksheer  [61],  but  the  ceiling  goes  only  as  far  as  the  marks  on 
the  ribs  showing  the  position  of  the  lower-deck  beams  [27],  when 
they  are  worked  to  their  places  and  the  ceiling  is  continued  to  the 
next  deck  above,  and  so  on  until  the  upper  deck  is  reached,  if  the 
vessel  is  to  have  more  than  two  decks.  At  intervals  spaces  are  left 
between  the  edges  of  the  ceiling  to  admit  air  to  the  frame  between 
the  outer  and  inner  planking;  these  spaces  are  called  air-strakes 
[24]. 

The  deck-frame,  consisting  of  beams  [25-27],  ledges  [29],  and 
carlins  [28],  strengthened  by  knees,  is  next  worked  into  place,  and 
when  it  is  finished  the  hatch-coamings  [32],  head- ledges,  partners, 


76  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

and  thick  strakes  amidships  are  placed  in  position.  The  water- 
ways [19]  are  bolted  to  the  deck  beams  and  sides  of  the  vessel, 
and  the  covering-board  [61]  is  worked  on  top  of  the  water-ways 
and  fayed  to  the  stanchions  or  tops  of  the  frames.  The  decks  [301 
may  now  be  laid,  the  rudder  [45]  hung,  the  bulwarks  [63]  built  and 
the  main  rail  [62],  catheads  [67],  etc.  worked.  To  give  additional 
strength  to  the  structure,  it  is  usual,  in  ships  of  considerable  size, 
to  lay  one  or  two  planks  of  the  deck  parallel  with  the  water-ways 
to  which  they  are  edge-bolted,  in  addition  to  being  fastened  to  the 
beams.  These  planks  are  an  inch  thicker  than  the  other  deck 
planks  and  worked  an  inch  into  and  over  the  beams.  The  rest  of 
the  deck  planking  is  laid  from  amidships  toward  the  water-ways 
on  each  side. 

The  vessel  having  now  been  decked  and  planked,  the  next 
work  is  to  make  her  water-tight  by  calking  the  seams.  This  is 
done  by  driving  a  thread  of  oakum  or  cotton,  as  may  be  desired, 
in  between  the  edges  of  the  planks  and  at  their  ends  or  butts.  The 
seams  are  then  either  painted  or  payed  full  of  hot  pitch,  and  the 
hull  outside  is  carefully  smoothed  by  going  over  it  with  planes. 
If  the  ship  is  not  to  be  coppered,  she  is  now  painted,  and,  when 
dry,  is  ready  to  be  launched. 

Launching. 

As  has  been  explained,  the  weight  of  the  ship  while  building 
is  sustained  by  a  central  line  of  blocks  resting  on  the  ground-ways, 
and  she  is  supported  in  an  upright  position  by  shores  and  spurs. 
When  the  time  for  launching  arrives  the  weight  of  the  fabric  must 
be  transferred  from  these  blocks  to  inclined  planes  called  launch- 
mg-ways.  which  are  fitted  underneath  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  on 
each  side  of  the  keel,  as  follows:  The  ground- ways  are  first  care- 
fully smoothed  and  laid  either  to  a  gentle  curve  or  to  a  straight 
line  their  entire  length.  The  launching-ways  may  then  be  hauled 
up  into  place  and  fitted  to  the  ground-ways.  When  this  work  has 
been  accomplished  a  cradle  composed  of  "packing,"  shores,  pop- 
pets, and  "chocks"  is  built  upon  the  launching-ways  to  fit  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel.  A  small  space  is  left  between  the  packing 
and  launching-ways  for  the  insertion  of  long  wedges,  which  are 
subsequently  used  in  lifting  the  weight  of  the  ship  from  the  keel 
blocks.  The  different  parts  of  the  cradle  are  firmly  bound  to- 
gether by  "ribbands"  and  chains,  which  extend  from  one  side  of 
the  framework  underneath  the  keel  to  the  other  side  and  unite 
the  whole  into  a  rigid  mass  of  timber.  Just  before  launching,  the 
cradle  is  shored  up  and  the  under  sides  of  the  launching-wa*ys  and 
the  upper  surface  of  the  ground-ways  are  well  greased  with  a 
mixture  composed  of  tallow,  oil,  soap,  and  lamp-black;  a  stout, 
piece  of  plank  is  also  well  greased  and  placed  against  the  last 
pile  of  blocks  in  line  with  the  keel,  to  form  a  track  to  receive 
the  "fore-foot"  when  the  ship  leaves  the  ways.  The  sliding-ways 
being  once  more  in  place  on  top  of  the  ground-ways  the  shores 
are  removed  from  the  cradle,  and  it  is  allowed  to  rest  upon  the 
wedges  placed  between  it  and  the  sliding  ways.  Finally  the 
launching-ways  are  secured  to  the  ground-ways  by  a  stout  plank 
fastened  to  both  ways,  and  just  before  high  water  the  word  is 
given  to  "wedge  up."  Men  armed  with  heavy  sledges  or  battering 
rams  are  stationed  at  each  of  the  wedges  and  simultaneously  drive 
in  the  wedges  until  the  weight  of  the  ship  is  lifted  from  the  keel 
blocks  and  rests  upon  the  cradle,  which  in  turn  bears  upon  the 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


sliding-ways.  The  keel  blocks  are  now  removed  one  by  one,  be- 
ginning at  the  one  nearest  the  water.  The  shores  and  spurs  used 
in  supporting  the  vessel  while  building  are  taken  down,  and  now 
all  that  holds  the  ship  is  the  plank  which  binds  the  ground-ways 
to  the  launching-ways.  This  is  cut,  and  the  ship,  upheld  by  the 
cradle,  gently  glides  down  the  inclined  plane  from  the  shore  into 
her  native  element. 

The  cradle,  being  ballasted  with  pig-iron  and  weighted  with 
chains  and  heavy  timbers,  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  the  ship  floats 
clear  of  it  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  anchors,  having  been 
cock-billed  previous  to  the  launch,  are  let  go  when  it  is  desired 
to  check  the  movement  of  the  ship. 


NOMENCLATURE  OF  THE  SHIP. 


(For   explanation   of   numbers   see    diagram.) 


1.  Keel. — The  principal  timber  in  the  frame   of  a  ship.     It  is 
composed  of  several  parts,  the  number  varying  with  the  length  of 
the  ship  and  store  of  timber,  securely  fastened  together  lengthwise 
by  scarfs,  and  has  grooves  or  rabbets  cut  in  each  of  its  sides  to 
receive  the  edges  of  the  garboard  strakes. 

2.  Shoe. — A  piece  of  timber  of  the  same  width,  but  siding  less 
than  the  keel,  bolted  lightly  to  the  bottom  of  the  keel  and  designed 
to  protect  the  keel  in  case  of  the  grounding  of  the  vessel.     Short 
bolts  are  used  to  fasten  it  on.  so  that  it  may  be  torn  off  without 
injury  to  the  keel  in  the  event  of  the  vessel's  striking  the  bottom. 

3.  Frames  or  Ribs. — The  separate  parts  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
ship,  to  which  are  fastened  the  planking,  beams,  etc.     Each  frame 
is  composed  of  several  parts,  called  frame  timbers,  bolted  together 
to  form  a  U-shaped  structure,  which  rests  at  its  middle  point  upon 
the  keel,  and  is  bolted  to  it.     In  each  frame  there  are  two  floor 
timbers,  called  the  long  and  the  short  floor-head,  and  they  are  so 
placed  across  the  keel  as  to  form  alternate  lines  of  abutment,  or 
so  that  no  joining  line  runs  the  entire  length  of  the  keel.     Running 
along  one  side  of  the  ship,   for  instance,   one  rib  will  end  at  the 
keel  in  a  short  floor-head,  the  opposite  long  one  meeting  it.  while 
the  next  rib  will  end  in  a  loner  one  meeting  the  opposite  short  one. 
The  remaining  parts  of  the  frame  are  called  the  1st.   2d.   3d,   4th, 
and  5th  futtocks.    F51,    C61,    [71.    [81.   and   F91.   top-timber  F101,   and 
the  top  or  stanchion    Fill,   in  the  order  given,   counting  from   the 
floor  timbers  upward  on  each  side  of  the  keel  to  the  main  rail. 

12.  Keelson. — A   piece   of  timber  worked   above   the   keel   and 
floor   timbers   which   it   serves   to   bind   to   the   keel.     It   sides   the 
same  as  the  keel  and  extends  the  length  of  the  square  frame  and 
abuts  on  the  dead  wood. 

13.  Scarf. — A  method  of  joining  two  ends  of  timbers  longitudi- 
nally together  by  a  dovetailing  of  their  parts,  which  prevents  them 
from  being  .pulled  apart  lengthwise.     The  joint  is  secured  vertically 
by  scarf-bolts,   which  are  driven  through  both  parts  of  the  scarf. 
The  principal  scarfs  used   in  ship  building  are  the  butt-scarf  for 
planking1,   and  hook-   and   key-scarfs  for  heavier  timber. 

14.  Assistant    (or    sister)     Keelson. — A    fore    and    aft   piece    of 
timber  placed  on  top  of  the  frames  on  either  side  of  the  main  keel- 
son, to  which  it  is  bolted. 


78 


THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 


15.  Bilge    Keelson. — To  give  additional  strength   to   the   frame, 
and  in  some  ships   to  serve  as  a  foundation   for  stanchions   which 
support  the  lower-deck  beams. 

16.  Bilge    Strakes. — Thick    strengthening    planks    which    form 
the  ceiling  at  the  bilge. 

17.  Ceiling. — The    inner   planking  of   the    ship. 

18.  Clamps  (OP  shelf -pieces). — Heavy  planks  of  the  ceiling  up- 
on which   the  deck  beams  rest. 


LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  -  STERN 

19.  Main   Water-ways. — Heavy  pieces  of  timber  worked  in  the 
angle  made   by   the   top  of  the  deck  beams  and   the   inside   of  the 
frame  timbers.     It  is  strengthened  on  the  lo^wer  decks  of  large  ships 
by  the   addition  of — 

20.  Upper   Water-ways,   and 

21.  Side   Water-ways. 

Knees. — A  knee  is  a  timber  of  natural  growth   with  two  arms 
nearly  in  shape  of  a  right  angle,  and  it  is  used   to  strengthen  and 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  79 

brace  the  different  parts  of  a  ship's  frame,  to  resist  the  strain  and 
pressure  from  every  conceivable  direction  to  which  it  is  to  be  sub- 
jected. The  knees  are  named  from  the  position  in  which  they  are 
placed. 

22.  Lodging   Knee. — One  which  is  secured  to  the  forward  side 
of  a  beam  and  to  the  side  of  the  vessel  in  a  horizontal  position. 

Bosom  Knee. — One  which  is  similarly  secured  to  the  after  side 
of  a  beam. 

23.  Hanging  Knee. — A  knee  which  is  secured  to  the  under  side 
of  a  beam  and  vertically  to  the  side  of  the  ship.     When  from  any 
cause,   such  as  an   intervening-  port  or   the   peculiar   shape   of  the 
ship's  hull,  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  the  lower  arm  of  a  hang- 
ing knee  vertically,  and  it  is  fastened  diagonally  to  the  ship's  side, 
it  is  called  a  dagger  knee.     A  carlin   knee  is  used  to  fill  the  angle 
made   by   the   intersection   of   a   carlin   with   a   beam   or   ledge.     A 
deck- hook  is  a  knee  placed  horizontally  across  the  frames  at  the 
extremities   of   the   ship   as   a   support   for   the   decks.     The   stern - 
knee  is  a  large  knee  which  fills  the  angle  made  by  the  intersection 
of  the  keel  with  the  inner  stern-post  and  forms  a  part  of  the  after 
deadwood. 

24.  Air-strakes. — Spaces  left  between  the  edges  of  the  ceiling 
planking  to  admit  air  to  the  frames  between  the  inner  and  outer 
planking.     Metallic    ventilators,    which    are    fitted    to    the    covering 
board  and  so  arranged   that  they  may  be   screwed   down   tight  in 
wet  or  stormy  weather,  serve  the  same  purpose. 

Beams. — Heavy  transverse  pieces  of  timber  which  form  the 
principal  part  of  the  deck  frames  and  serve  to  retain  the  sides  of 
the  shio  in  sba.Dft. 

25.  Main-deck   Beams. 

26.  Between-deck  Beame. 

27.  Lower-deck  Beams. 

28.  Carlins  (or  fore  and  afts). — Short  timbers  placed  fore  and 
aft  in  the  deck  frame  from  one  beam  to  another. 

29.  Ledges. — Short,  transverse  pieces  of  timber,  smaller  in  size 
than  the  carlins,  which  form  a  part  of  the  deck  frame,  and  are  let 
into  the  carlins  and  knees. 

30.  Deck   Planks. — The  covering  of  the  deck  frame. 

31.  Hatches. — Openings    in    the    deck   not    less    than    two    feet 
square.     Smaller  openings  are  called  scuttles,  and  are  usually  not 
fitted  with  coamings. 

32.  Hatch  Coamings. — Pieces  of  timber  placed  fore  and  aft  to 
form    a    framing    for    the    hatch.     The    pieces    which    are    placed 
athwartships  are  called  head  ledges.     The  whole  is  dovetailed  to- 
gether and  bolted  to  the  deck  frame. 

33.  Hatch    Covers. — Wooden   doors   or  covers   for   the   hatches. 
The  skylights  or  framing  and   sashlights  which   cover  the   hatches 
on  the  upper  deck,   and  by  which   light   is   admitted   to   the   decks 
below,   are  called   companions. 

34.  Stem. — The    forward    termination    or    continuation    of    the 
keel.     It   is   generally   composed  of  two   or   more   pieces   of   timber 
scarfed   together.     When   in   three   parts,    the    separate    pieces   are 
called  the  upper,  middle,  and  lower  stem-piece,  respectively.     It  is 
united  to  the  keel  by  a  hook-scarf. 

35.  Gripe. — A   piece   of  timber  bolted   to   the   forward   edge   of 
the  stem  to  form  a  finish  and  to  protect  the  stem  in  the  event  of 
slight  collisions. 

Dead-wood. — Heavy  pieces  of  timber,  bolted  to  the  inside  of 
the  keel,  stem,  and  stern-post  for  increase  of  strength  and  as  a 
solid  foundation  for  the  support  of  the  cant  frames. 


80 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


MIDSHIP  CROSS  SECTION 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL. 


81 


36.  Forward    Dead-wood. 

37.  Apron. — An   inner  strengthening-  timber  bolted   to   the   for- 
ward dead-wood  and  stem. 

38.  Knight-heads. — Vertical  timbers  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the 
apron   or  forward   dead-wood   and   extending   upward   on   each   side 
of  the  bowsprit,  which  they  help  support. 


LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  —  BOW 

39.  Figurehead. — The    ornamental    figure    on    the    extremity    of 
the  upper  stem-piece. 

40.  Stern-post. — The   timber  which   forms   the-  after   extremity 
of  the  ship.     It  is  fastened  to  the  keel  by  tenon  and   mortise  and 
is  braced  from  within  by  the — 


82  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

41.  Inner   Stern-post,  and  the 

42.  After  Dead-wood. 

43.  Main    Transom. — Horizontal    pieces    of    timber    which    are 
bolted  to  the  stern-post  and  form  a  part  of  the  stern  frame. 

44.  Lower  Transoms. 

45.  Rudder. — The  instrument  by  which   the  vessel  is  steered. 
It  consists  of  several  pieces  of  timber  bolted  together  into  a  flat 
structure  and  hung  by  means  of  pintles  and  gudgeons  or  braces  to 
the  afterside   of  the  stern-post. 

46.  Rudder  Stock. — The  main  piece  of  the  rudder.     Its  exten- 
sion is  cylindrical  in  shape  and  passes  through  the  "rudder  port" 
in  the  counter  to  a  height  above  deck  sufficient  to  connect  the  tiller 
by  which  the  rudder  is  turned.     The  upper  portion  of  the  stock  is 
called   the    "rudder  head."     The   lower  edge   of   the   rudder   is  the 
"heel"  and  the  upper  part   the   "shoulder."     The  forward   edge  of 
the  rudder  is  beveled  to  allow  the  required  helm  angle.     To  prevent 
the  rudder  from  unshipping,  a  piece  of  wood  called  the  "wood-lock" 
is  placed  in  an  aperture  under  the  upper  pintle      The  after-edge 
of  the  rudder  is  often  made  concave  to  prevent  vibration. 

47.  Rudder    Braces. — Composition   or   copper   sockets   fastened 
to  the  stern-post  to  receive  the  pintles. 

48.  Pintles. — Composition  or  copper  bolts  with  straps  attached 
for  fastening  to  the  rudder.     The  bolts  rest  in  the  braces. 

49.  Stern  Frames. 

50.  Stanchions. — Upright  pieces  of  timber  to  support  the  decks. 

51.  Breast- hooks. — Large  knees  which  are  secured  to  the  in- 
ner side  of  the  apron  and  stemson  with  their  arms  running  back 
across  the  timbers  of  the  frame. 

52.  Riders. — Interior  ribs  which  serve  to  strengthen  the  frame 
at  the  extremities  of  the  ship. 

Garboard  Strakes. — The  first  two  planks  to  be  worked  on  the 
outside  of  the  frame  of  a  ship.  The  edge  of  the  first  garboard  is 
rabbeted  into  the  sides  of  the  keel  and  into  the  stem  and  stern- 
post  at  the  end.  The  garboard  strakes  are  wider  and  thicker  than 
the  rest  of  the  bottom  planking. 

53.  First    Garboard. 

54.  Second  Garboard. 

55.  Bottom  Planking. — The  planks  covering  the  frame  between 
the  garboard  strakes  and  the  bilge  planking. 

56.  Bilge    Planking. — The    planks    covering    the    frame    at    the 
bilge. 

57.  Side  Planking.— (See  Bends). 

58.  Wales    or    Bends. — The    thickest    planks    on    the    outside. 
They  extend  from  the  main  deck  down  to  the  turn  of  the  bilge. 

59.  Waist. — The  outside  planking  between  the   covering-board 
and  the  bends. 

60.  Scupper. — A  hole   cut   through   the   water-ways   and    sides 
of  the  ship  to  carry  off  water  from  the  decks. 

61.  Covering-Board     (or    plank-sheer). — Pieces    of    plank    laid 
horizontally  over  the  timber-heads,  just  above  the  water-ways,  to 
cover  the  sides. 

62.  Main    Rail. 

63.  Bulwarks. — The  planking  of  a  vessel  above  the  upper  deck. 

64.  Chain    Plates. — Iron  plates  bolted  to  the  outside  of  a  ship 
to  which  are  attached  the  dead-eyes. 

65.  Dead-eyes. — Pieces     of     hard     wood     having     three     holes 
through  which  the  lanyards  are  rove  for  setting  up  the  rigging. 

66.  Channels. — Pieces    of    oak    plank    bolted    edgewise    to    the 
ship's  side  to  give  greater  spread  to  the  rigging,  thereby  affording 
additional  support  to  the  masts. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


67.  Cat- head.— A   piece   of   timber   secured    to    the    topgallant- 
forecastle   deck,   having   one   end   extending   a   short  distance   out- 
board and  fitted  with  sheaves  for  reeving  a  purchase  to  secure  the 
anchor  and  with  some  form  of  mechanical  contrivance  for  letting 
it  go.     The  part  inboard  is  called  the   "cat-tail." 

68.  Bowsprit. 

69.  Bitts. — Upright    pieces    of    timber     projecting     above    the 
decks,  to  which  lines  are  made  fast  for  towing,   etc. 

70.  Windlass    Bitts. — Upright   pieces   of   timber   which   support 
the  barrel  of  the  windlass. 

71.  Windlass. — A  mechanical   contrivance   for   raising   the   an- 
chor.    It     consists     of    a     horizontal     cylindrical     piece     of     wood, 
which  is  supported  by  the  windlass   bitts.     Around   the   middle  of 
the  barrel  an  iron  ratchet  band   is  placed,  and  two  ratchet   pawls 
fall   in   it  as  the   barrel   is   turned.     Upon   each   end   of   the    barrel 
there  are  whelps,  around  which  the  chain  is  wound  when  heaving. 
The  windlass  is   usually  moved   by  hand-spikes   inserted   in   holes 
in  the  cylinder,  and  an  improved  kind  has  pump-brakes,  connected 
by  rods  to   pawls  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  them   to  take  in 
ratchets  on  the  cylinder  on  the  up  and  down  strokes. 

72.  Windlass    Brakes. — Long   handles,    serving   the   purpose    of 
levers  for  working  the  windlass. 

73.  Capstan. — A  machine   used   on   shipboard    for   the   purpose 
of   increasing   power   when   raising   heavy   weights.     Greater   com- 
pactness and  convenience  in  use  make  it  an   improvement  of  the 
windlass.     It   consists   of   an   upright   cylinder   of   iron   surmounted 
by  a  hemispherical  drum-head,    the   circumference   of  which   con- 
tains sockets  for  the  admission  of  wooden  or  iron  bars,   by  which 
the  capstan  is  turned. 

The  lower  part  of  the  capstan  is  called  the  "pawl-head"  and  fits 
into  a  circular  bed  called  the  "pawl-rim."  Around  the  base  of  the 
barrel  short  pieces  of  iron  are  secured  by  one  end,  leaving  the 
other  free  to  move  in  the  direction  in  which  the  power  is  applied, 
over  the  tops  of  notches  which  form  a  part  of  the  pawl-rim.  When 
the  power  is  removed  the  ends  of  the  pawls  drop  by  gravity 
against  the  notches,  and  by  this  means  prevent  the  capstan  from 
turning  back. 

The  axis  of  the  capstan  consists  of  a  vertical  iron  spindle  which 
is  fastened  to  the  deck  and  holds  the  machine  in  place.  Recent  im- 
provements in  the  capstan  have  added  greatly  to  its  power  by  in- 
troducing a  system  of  gearing  on  the  inside  of  the  barrel  which 
is  brought  into  play  by  the  action  of  a  "lock-bolt." 

When  this  gearing  is  utilized  the  barrel  is  turned  in  an  oppo- 
site direction,  the  power  is  multiplied  threefold,  but  at  the  sac- 
rifice of  time  for  the  performance  of  the  work. 

Capstans  constructed  on  various  plans  have  almost  entirely 
superseded  the  use  of  the  windlass  for  raising  the  anchor,  except 
in  small  vessels. 

74.  Gypsy. — An   attachment   on   the  windlass   bitts  and   some- 
times placed  at  other  parts  of  the  ship  for  the  purpose  of  increas- 
ing power  when  it  is  not  convenient  to  use  either  the  windlass  or 
capstan. 

75.  Gypsy   and   Windlass    Pawls. — Short   iron-bars  working   on 
a  ratchet  band  to  prevent  the  backward   motion   of  a  capstan   or 
windlass. 

76.  Topgallant-forecastle   Deck. 

77.  Forward    Chock. — That   part    of    the    forecastle   rail   which 
extends  from  the  cat-heads  to  the  knight-heads. 

78.  Warping    Chocks. — Scores   cut    in   the    top   of   the    forward 
chock  to  receive  the  lines  used  in  warping. 


84  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 

— — ^ 

79.  Mooring    Chock. — A    large    cleat    fastened    across    the    tops 
near  the  stern  and  pierced  with  a  hole  through  which  a  cable   is 
passed  in  mooring  ship. 

80.  Chain    Stoppers. — A   mechanical   device   for   preventing   the 
chain  from  running  out   of  the   hawse-pipes. 

81.  Pin-rail. — Ledges  of  oak  bolted  to  the  inside  of  the  main 
rail  and  pierced  with  holes  to  receive  belaying-pins.     Fife-rail  is  a 
rail   for  belaying-pins   built   around   a   mast.     Taffrail    is   that  p'.  r.. 
of  the  main  rail  around  the  stern  of  a   ship. 

82.  Diagonal    Braces. — Iron   straps  let   into  the   outside  of  the 
frame  timbers  and   extending  from   the  floor  timbers  to  the   tops; 
used   to  give   greater  strength   and   rigidity   to   the   hull.     Diagonal 
braces  were   first   introduced   in  ship   building   by   Sir   Robert   Sep- 
pings   about   1800.     This   officer   was   also   the    first   to   suggest    the 
plan  of  filling  in  the  spaces  between  the  frames  with  solid  timber 
as  a  means  of  preventing  "hogging"  of  the  ship's  body. 

83.  Belaying- Pins. — Short     cylindrical     wooden     pins     usually 
made  of  locust  for  making  fast  the  gear  to  the  rails  in  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  ship. 

84.  Forward   Cants. — The  ribs  which   form   the  skeleton  frame 
of  the  ship   forward   of  the   square-frame.     Their  heels   abut   upon 
the  sides  of  the  dead-wood. 

85.  Limbers. — Holes    cut    through    the    floor-timbers    alongside 
the  keelson  to  allow   the  passage  of  water  to  the  pumps.     Limber 
boards   are  boards   placed   fore   and   aft  over   the   limbers.     Limber 
chains  are   chains  rove   fore  and   aft  through  the   limbers  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  them  free  from  obstructions. 

86.  Chain     Hawse- Pipes. — Iron     pipes     fitted     into     holes     cut 
through  the  hawse-timbers  to  protect  the  wood  from  the  chafe  of 
the  cables.     In  order  to  preserve  the  wood  from  the  effects  of  iron 
rust  the  hawse-holes  are  first  lined  with  lead. 


Materials  and  Fastenings. 


The  frames  should  be  of  white  oak,  free  from  sap  or  decay; 
the  timbers  well  seasoned  and  salted  or  pickled  during  the  work 
of  construction.  The  principal  timbers  should  be  of  live-oak  or 
other  equally  durable  wood,  and  the  "tops"  of  locust,  hackma- 
tack, or  white-heart  chestnut.  Copper  or  composition  bolts  should 
be  used  in  fastening  the  frames  to  the  keel  and  the  heels  of  the 
cants  to  the  dead-wood. 

The  keel,  stem,  and  stern-post  should  be  of  live  oak,  with 
scarfs  not  less  than  seven  feet  in  length.  The  rabbets  should  ex- 
tend sufficiently  far  to  admit  of  fastening  the  wood -ends  thereto. 
The  keel  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  of  twice  the  thick- 
ness of  the  outside  planks  between  rabbets  on  the  stem  and  stern- 
post.  The  lower  piece  of  the  stem  should  be  a  natural  crook,  at- 
tached to  the  keel  by  a  hook  scarf  and  strengthened  by  horseshoe 
straps  of  composition  let  in  flush  on  either  side  and  bolted  through. 
The  stern-post  should  step  into  the  keel  and  be  fastened  by  tenon 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL,  85 

and  mortise.  The  keelson  may  be  of  oak  or  yellow  pine.  It  should 
be  of  the  same  size  as  the  keel  and  fastened  to  it  by  copper  or 
composition  bolts  driven  through  the  keelson,  each  alternate  floor- 
head  and  the  keel.  The  scarfs  of  the  keelson  should  be  not  less 
than  six  feet  in  length  and  shifted  so  that  no  scarf  will  be  under 
the  heel  of  a  mast. 

The  beams  are  of  oak  or  yellow  pine  and  fastened  to  the 
sides  by  knees  (natural  crooks).  The  bosom  and  lodging  knees 
must  be  of  hackmatack  and  the  hanging-knees  of  hackmatack  or 
seasoned  oak.  The  knees  are  fastened  with  through-bolts  driven 
from  the  outside  and  clinched  over  rings,  and  with  blunt  bolts 
driven  from  the  inside  to  within  one  inch  of  through.  Each  hang- 
ing knee  should  be  keyed  to  the  beam. 

The  inner  stern-post  and  apron  are  of  oak  or  pine  and  secured 
to  the  stern-post  and  stem,  respectively,  by  copper  bolts  driven 
through  and  clinched  over  rings  on  the  outside.  The  dead-wood 
must  be  of  the  best  seasoned  yellow  pine,  or  other  equally  durable 
wood,  and  fastened  with  through-bolts  driven  from  the  inside  and 
clinched  over  rings.  Water-ways  should  be  of  oak  or  yellow  pine, 
edge-bolted  to  the  beams  and  timbers. 

The  outside  planking  must  be  of  white  oak  or  yellow  pine  and 
fit  closely  to  each  other  on  the  inside. 

The  butts  are  usually  fastened  with  copper  spikes  driven 
through  the  frame  and  clinched  inside.  Other  parts  should  be 
fastened  with  locust  treenails.  The  planks  should  be  at  least  five 
feet  long,  and  all  butts  on  the  same  timber  must  have  at  least 
three  planks  between  them. 

Deck  planks  must  be  of  white  or  yellow  pine  not  less  than  30 
feet  in  length,  free  from  "shakes"  and  knot-holes,  and  should  be 
fastened  with  two  copper  or  composition  bolts  in  each  butt,  and 
one  bolt  in  each  beam  or  ledge  which  it  crosses. 

Garboard  strakes  should  be  of  oak  bolted  to  the  floors  with 
copper  or  composition  bolts  driven  through  frame  and  clinched, 
and  edge-bolted  through  the  keel  in  addition  to  treenailing.  Bul- 
warks may  be  of  white  pine,  and  all  interior  joiner  work  of  white 
pine,  walnut,  cherry,  ash,  maple,  poplar,  whitewood,  etc.,  as  may 
be  desired. 

In  calking,  the  seams  should  be  well  filled  with  oakum  thread 
50  feet  to  the  pound,  and  at  least  one  thread  to  each  half-inch  of 
the  thickness  of  the  plank. 

When  old  vessels  are  to  be  examined  with  a  view  to  making 
repairs  or  to  ascertain  their  condition  for  any  purpose,  particular 
attention  should  be  directed  to  the  state  of  the  upper  and  main 
deck  and  coamings,  the  water-ways,  beams,  knees,  and  plank- 
sheer.  The  planking  near  the  water-line  and  under  the  channels 
should  be  examined  and  the  state  of  the  seams  with  reference  to 
the  calking  observed.  One  or  two  planks  should  be  removed 
from  the  floor  and  the  state  of  the  frame,  treenails  and  inside  of 
the  planking  examined.  In  sailing  ships  the  counter,  rudder-post, 
mast-partners,  timber-heads  under  bowsprit,  the  stern-post,  and 
fore-foot  are  most  liable  to  decay.  In  steamers  the  wood-work 
near  the  boilers,  which  is  subjected  to  extremes  of  heat  and  damp- 
ness, is  liable  to  dry-rot.  Where  decayed  wood  is  suspected  to 
exist  the  easiest  and  general  way  of  ascertaining  the  condition  is 
by  boring1. 

Leaks  are  most  likely  to  occur  at  the  wood-ends,  especially  in 
vessels  where  the  planks  are  much  bent  to  conform  to  the  model 
at  the  butts  of  planking  and  through  treenails  and  seams  of  the 
planking  under  the  channels. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 


en     £ 

2   c 
o  £ 


a: 


II 

fi  *s 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


ff  1?A  Oft  F I  (T  r5 

Ilill 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


W 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


89 


1 

o 


90  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


THE   DIFFERENCE   BETWEEN   GROSS   AND   NET 
TONNAGE. 


The  near-landsman  is  often  confused  as  to  the  exact  differ- 
ence between  the  gross  tonnage,  net  tonnage  and  displacement  of 
vessels.  All  mercantile  nations  have  agreed  to  consider  the  gross 
tonnage  of  a  vessel  its  entire  interior  capacity,  measured  in  tons 
of  100  cubic  feet. 

The  net  tonnage  is  the  figure  obtained  by  subtracting  from  the 
gross  tonnage  the  space  utilized  by  the  officers'  accommodations, 
crew  and  gear  for  working  the  ship;  and,  in  the  case  of  a  steam- 
ship, all  her  propelling  machinery,  such  as  boilers  and  engines. 
The  net  tonnage  of  a  ship  is  therefore  the  space  used  for  carrying 
passengers  or  cargo. 

Naval  vessels,  and  also  merchant  ships,  are  rated  in  size  ac- 
weight  of  the  water  in  tons  displaced  by  the  ship  when  loaded  to 
cording  to  their  displacement.  The  displacement  of  a  ship  is  the 
its  normal  load  water  line.  In  the  case  of  a  dreadnaught  the  dis- 
placement only  varies  as  the  quantity  of  coal  or  oil  aboard  de- 
creases, or  increases  when  reloading.  With  a  merchant  ship  the 
displacement  varies  by  the  amount  of  cargo  which  it  may  carry. 
When  light  the  displacement  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  ship. 
When  loaded  the  displacement  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  ship 
and  cargo.  The  quantity  of  water  displaced  in  tons  is,  under  all 
circumstances,  equal  to  the  weight  of  vessels  and  cargo  so  long  as 
it  floats.  When  a  ship  sinks,  then  the  weight  of  the  vessel  is 
greater  than  the  weight  of  the  water  which  it  displaces.  It  is 
impossible  for  a  ship  to  displace  a  weight  of  water  less  than  its 
own  weight,  else  it  would  rise.  In  other  words,  the  weight  of  the 
ship  and  cargo  which  is  the  downward  force  tending  to  sink  it, 
is  always  equal  to  the  upward  pressure  of  the  water. 

The  general  public,  which  is  not  familiar  with  the  distinction 
between  the«e  terms,  is  likely  to  believe  that  war  ships  are  much 
larger  than  the  great  ocean  liners,  since  the  size  of  the  former 
is  expressed  by  displacement  while  the  size  of  the  latter  is  usually 
expressed  by  their  carrying  capacity  or  gross  tonnage.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  the  largest  war  ships  are  smaller  than  the  largest 
ocean  liners. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 


91 


TJ 
£ 

&! 


»     C 


2    «J 

I! 


92        *  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

OF 

STEEL  MERCHANT  STEAMSHIPS. 


EMERGENCY   FLEET  STANDARD   STEEL   STEAMSHIP. 


This  vessel  is  of  the  single-screw  type  with  straight  stem 
and  elliptical  stern,  schooner  rigged  with  two  steel  poie  masts. 
The  hull  is  built  on  the  transverse  system  with  two  steel  decks  and 
a  raised  forecastle,  long  bridge  and  a  full  poop. 

A  complete  double  bottom,  subdivided  into  five  compartments 
longitudinally,  is  fitted  throughout  the  length  of  the  vessel.  The 
compartments  under  the  machinery  space  and  under  holds  Nos. 
1,  2  and  3  are  arranged  for  storing  fuel  oil,  while  the  compart- 
ments under  hold  No.  4  are  arranged  for  feed  water. 

Six  watertight  bulkheads  divide  the  hull  into  seven  water- 
tight compartments;  four  of  the  bulkheads  extend  to  the  upper 
deck  and  two  to  the  main  deck.  Cargo  is  handled  through  five 
hatches  in  the  upper  and  main  decks  and  one  cargo  hatch  in  the 
bridge  deck.  There  is  also  a  hatch  in  the  poop  deck  and  one  under 
it  in  the  upper  deck  to  the  after  peak. 

GENERAL   ARRANGEMENT. 

As  can  be  seen  from  the  plans,  the  machinery,  which  consists 
of  a  triple  expansion  reciprocating  engine  driving  a  single  screw, 
is  located  amidships  with  two  main  boilers  abreast  and  a  screen 
bulkhead  built  around  them  at  their  after  end  to  separate  the 
boiler  and  engine  rooms.  Side  bunkers  for  fuel  oil  are  fitted  be- 
low the  main  deck  in  the  engine  and  boiler  rooms,  in  addition  to 
the  double  bottom  compartments  arranged  for  oil  storage. 

Accommodations  for  the  captain,  deck  officers,  engineers,  etc., 
are  provided  in  deck  houses  on  the  bridge  deck.  Quartermasters, 
boatswain,  mess  boys,  seamen  and  firernen  are  berthed  in  the  fore- 
castle. Quarters  for  the  gun  crew  with  wash  room  are  provided 
in  the  poop. 

HULL    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  framing  of  the  vessel  is  on  the  transverse  system  with  two 
steel  decks  in  the  hull.  The  decks  are  supported  by  girders  and 
deep  beams  with  one  row  of  wide-spaced  pillars.  The  side  frames 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


93 


Midship  Section. 
Standard  Steel  Steamship. 


94 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 


SECTION  THROUGH  BOILER  ROOM 

Standard  Steel  Steamship. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  95 

are  cut  and  bracketed  at  the  main  deck  in  way  of  the  bunkers,  so 
that  the  lower  bunkers  may  be  made  oil  tight.  All  scantlings  are 
as  indicated  on  the  midship  sections. 

The  stem  is  a  flat  steel  bar  made  in  sections  and  the  stern 
frame  is  of  cast  steel  in  one  piece. 

Complete  steel  decks  are  fitted  on  the  main  and  upper  decks, 
bridge  and  poop  and  stringers  and  tie  plates  on  the  forecastle. 
The  main  deck  is  carried  through  in  way  of  the  machinery  casings 
and  is  oil  tight  over  the  bunkers. 

In  addition  to  the  six  watertight  bulkheads,  steel  bulkheads 
are  fitted  at  the  forward  and  after  ends  of  the  bridge  and  the  for- 
ward end  of  the  poop  and  around  the  quarters  in  the  forecastle. 

These  vessels  are  designed  in  regard  to  boiler  equipment  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  boilers  may  be  firetube,  either  for  coal 
consumption  or  fuel  oil,  or  watertube  boilers  may  be  used  if  de- 
sired. 


COMPOSITE  STEAMSHIP  CONSTRUCTION. 


The  term  "composite"  as  used  in  ship  construction,  generally 
means  construction  in  which  are  used  both  wood  and  steel.  In 
a  general  way  the  planking  is  of  wood  and  the  reinforcing  parts, 
such  as  framing,  angles,  pillars,  etc.,  are  of  metal. 

The  composite  steamer  is  designed  to  provide  a  ship  which 
can  be  economically  constructed  in  spite  of  the  scarcity  of 
material. 

Another  very  important  feature  of  a  composite  vessel  is  the 
saving  for  cargo  space  made  possible  by  the  substitution  of  steel 
for  wood. 

Ships  three  hundred  feet  long  can  be  built  according  to  this 
method  with  perfect  safety  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  saving  of 
space  by  using  steel  rather  than  *wood  in  a  vessel  of  this  size 
would  be  considerably  in  excess  of  three  hundred  tons.  The  dia- 
gram here  shown  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  application  of  the 
principle  of  composite  construction. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  larger  the  ship  the  less  the 
cost  to  construct  and  operate  per  ton  of  carrying  capacity.  The 
fact  that  there  is  a  limit  beyond  which  the  size  of  the  all-wooden 
ship  cannot  be  carried  practically,  is  the  principal  handicap  which 
that  type  has  to  meet,  therefore,  for  economy  it  is  necessary  to 
turn  to  a  substitute  approaching  the  all-steel  ship.  Advocates  of 
this  type  of  construction  claim  a  very  considerable  saving  in  cost 
of  construction.  Some  vessels  of  the  composite  type  are  designed 
so  that  the  wood  planking  can  be  removed  and  steel  plating  sub- 
stituted, thus  converting  the  vessel  into  a  standard  steel  ship.  It 
has  also  been  suggested  that  the  steel  frame  and  reinforcements 
may  be  used  and  concrete  substituted  for  the  wood  planking. 


96 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  97 


STOWAGE  OF  CARGO. 


The  proper  stowage  of  a  ship's  cargo  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant duties  of  a  ship's  officer.  A  cargo  improperly  stowed 
may  not  alone  result  in  damage  to  the  cargo,  but  may  result  in 
damage  to  the  ship  or  perhaps  cause  loss  of  the  vessel,  due  to 
the  cargo  shifting,  causing  the  vessel  to  capsize. 

At  many  of  the  ports  visited  by  Merchant  Ships,  competent 
stevedores  are  not  obtainable,  the  ships  in  these  cases  being 
loaded  and  discharged  by  the  ship's  crew.  A  knowledge,  there- 
fore, of  this  important  work  is  necessary,  so  that  the  seaman  may 
perform  these  duties  intelligently  and  thereby,  be  of  value  to  the 
officers  of  the  ship  in  which  he  serves. 

STABILITY    OF    SHIPS 

A  ship's  stability  depends  upon  her  form,  the  weight  of  her 
superstructure,  and  the  distribution  of  her  equipment,  cargo, 
stores,  fuel  and  ballast. 

Many  ships  have  been  designed  without  sufficient  stability 
when  light,  to  float  in  an  upright  position.  The  fact  that  vessels 
so  designed  sail  the  seas  is  not  alarming,  for  these  vessels  when 
obliged  to  proceed  without  cargo  are  always  loaded  with  sufficient 
ballast  to  make  them  stable.  With  the  modern  vessels,  a  water 
bottom,  or  double  bottom  so-called,  is  provided  for  carrying  water 
ballast. 

If  a  vessel's  form  and  the  distribution  of  the  weights  on  board 
is  such  as  to  give  her  considerable  stability,  the  vessel  is  termed 
stiff.  If  on  the  other  hand,  the  vessel  possesses  small  righting- 
leverage,  she  is  said  to  be  crank,  or  tender. 

By  the  term  stability  is  meant  the  moment  of  force  (usually 
measured  in  foot  tons  or  inch  tons)  with  which  a  vessel,  when 
inclined  from  the  upright  position  by  the  action  of  the  wind  or 
by  some  other  external  force,  immediately  endeavors  to  right  her- 
self, or  in  other  words  if  a  vessel  is  heeled  by  the  application  of 
some  external  force  the  effort  she  possesses  to  return  to  the 
upright  is  her  stability. 

A  stiff  vessel  is  inclined  to  roll  more  quickly  in  a  seaway 
than  a  tender  vessel;  and  may  cause  damage  by  straining  the 
structure  and  causing  leakage,  or  by  jerking  her  masts  over- 
board. Dismasting  due  to  this  cause  was  not  uncommon  when 
broad-beamed  sailing-ships  were  so  ballasted  as  to  produce  over- 
stiffness.  The  tender  vessel  rolls  slowly  and  her  motion  is  easier. 
Passenger,  liners  are  often  designed  as  tender  ships,  to  make  their 
motion  in  a  seaway  easy  for  the  comfort  of  the  passengers. 

The  above  brief  description  of  the  stability  of  ships  will  give 
a  general  idea  of  the  effect  the  stowage  of  cargo  will  have  upon 
the  vessel's  behavior  in  a  seaway. 


98  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 


GENERAL  CARGO 

Before  the  actual  work  of  stowing  the  cargo  begins,  the  ship 
should  be  prepared  to  receive  it,  for  after  being  loaded,  many  of 
the  internal  parts  of  the  vessel  will  be  inaccessible  and  to  insure 
that  the  cargo  will  be  delivered  at  its  destination  in  an  undamaged 
condition,  it  is  therefore,  necessary  to  clean  the  holds  and  to  see 
that  the  limbers,  scuppers,  strainers  and  pump  wells  are  clear. 

When  the  cargo  is  received  alongside,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
chief  officer  to  direct  its  stowage  and  determine  where  it  shall 
be  placed,  having  in  mind  the  stability  of  the  vessel  and  the 
proper  location  for  the  heavy  weights  such  as  machinery,  casks, 
cases,  iron  rails,  or  other  heavy  articles. 

In  a  tender  vessel,  the  heavy  weights  should  be  placed  in  the 
lower  hold,  and  the  lighter  weights  above.  While  in  a  stiff  vessel, 
the  heavy  weights  should  be  placed  higher  than  in  a  tender  vessel. 

While  the  above  is  a  general  rule,  the  best  results  will  be 
obtained  if  the  officer  in  charge  has  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  vessel's  stability,  for  he  may  then  load  the  vessel  with  the 
assurance  that  the  vessel  will  be  stable  when  loaded  and  yet 
not  so  stiff  as  to  cause  violent  rolling  in  a  seaway. 

BARRELS 

Barrels  should  be  stowed  fore  and  aft  in  straight  tiers  with 
the  bung  up,  and  bilge  free.  If  stowing  cargo  while  in  darkness  it 
is  well  to  remember  that  the  bung  is  always  to  be  found  in  line 
with  the  rivets  in  the  hoops. 

Barrels  containing  oil,  or  any  liquid  substance  should  be 
stowed  under  and  clear  of  all  cargo  it  could  damage  in  the  event 
of  leakage. 

CASES 

Cases  are  stowed,  marks  and  numbers  up,  the  side  which 
bears  the  marks  and  numbers  is  called  the  top. 

BALES 

Bales  are  stowed  flat,  amidships,  with  marks  and  numbers  up, 
or  on  edge  in  the  wing,  with  marks  and  numbers  inboard. 

IRON    RAILS 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  stowing  a  cargo  of  this 
nature,  to  prevent  its  shifting  in  a  seaway. 

It  should  be  stowed  grating  fashion,  and  shored  down  from 
the  deck  beams. 

CARBOYS 

Carboys  containing  acids,  gas  or  ether,  should  be  stowed  on 
deck,  so  that  they  may  be  thrown  overboard  in  case  of  leakage. 

DUNNAGE 

To  properly  stow  a  general  cargo,  it  should  be  dunnaged.  A 
good  rule  for  using  dunnage  is  as  follows:  nine  inches  on  floor, 
fourteen  inches  in  the  bilge,  three  inches  in  the  sides  and  two 
inches  on  the  between  decks. 

Dunnage  is  placed  fore  and  aft  in  the  lower  hold  and  athwart  - 
ships  in  the  between  decks,  so  that  water  may  have  free  passage. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


Regulations    Regarding    Carrying    Dangerous    Articles 

SEC.  4472.  No  loose  hay.  loose  cotton,  or  loose  hemp,  cam- 
phene,  nitroglycerin.  naphtha,  benzine,  benzole,  coal  oil.  crude 
or  refined  petroleum,  or  other  like  explosive  burning  fluids,  or  like 
dangerous  articles,  shall  be  carried  as  freight  or  used  as  stores  on 
any  steamer  carrying  passengers;  nor  shall  baled  cotton  or  hemp 
be  carried  on  such  steamers  unless  the  bales  are  compactly  pressed 
and  thoroughly  covered  and  secured  in  such  manner  as  shall  be 
prescribed  by  the  regulations  established  by  the  board  of  super- 
vising inspectors  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  Commerce; 
nor  shall  gunpowder  be  carried  on  any  such  vessel  except  under 
special  license;  nor  shall  oil  of  vitriol,  nitric  or  other  chemical 
acids  be  carried  on  such  steamers  except  on  the  decks  or  guards 
thereof  or  in  such  other  safe  part  of  the  vessel  as  shall  be  pre- 
scribed by  the  inspectors.  Refined  petroleum  which  will  not 
ignite  at  a  temperature  less  than  one  hundred  and  ten  degrees  of 
Fahrenheit  thermometer,  may  be  carried  on  board  such  steamers 
upon  routes  where  there  is  no  other  practicable  mode  of  trans- 
porting it,  and  under  such  regulations  as  shall  be  prescribed  by 
the  board  of  supervising  inspectors  with  the  approval  of  the 
Secretary  of  Commerce;  and  oil  or  spirits  of  turpentine  may  be 
carried  on  such  steamers  when  put  up  in  good  metallic  vessels 
or  casks  or  barrels  well  and  securely  bound  with  iron  and  stowed 
in  a  secure  part  of  the  vessel;  and  friction  matches  may  be  car- 
ried on  such  steamers  when  securely  packed  in  strong,  tight 
chests  or  boxes,  the  covers  of  which  shall  be  secured  by  locks, 
screws,  or  other  reliable  fastenings,  and  stowed  in  a  safe  part 
of  the  vessel  at  a  secure  distance  from  any  fire  or  heat.  All  such 
other  provisions  shall  be  made  on  every  steamer  carrying  pas- 
sengers or  freight,  to  guard  against  and  extinguish  fire,  as  shall 
be  prescribed  by  the  board  of  supervising  inspectors  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Secretary  of  Commerce. 

HOMOGENEOUS  CARGOES 

By  a  Homogeneous  Cargo  is  meant  one  entirely  composed  of 
the  same  nature,  such  as  a  complete  cargo  of  cotton,  or  coal,  or 
wool,  or  grain. 

GRAIN 

When  grain  is  carried,  it  must  be  kept  absolutely  dry.  Should 
it  become  wet,  it  is  apt  to  swell  and  burst  the  vessel's  decks. 

Shifting  boards  must  be  provided  to  prevent  the  cargo  from 
shifting  in  a  seaway. 

Grain  cargoes  are  generally  loaded  under  the  direction  of  an 
insurance  surveyor. 

COAL 

A  cargo  of  coal  is  stowed  to  the  deck  between  the  beams  and 
to  the  ship's  sides;  and  when  properly  trimmed,  is  not  liable  to 
shift  in  a  seaway. 

When  coal  is  being  carried  on  long-  voyages,  the  temperature 
in  the  various  portions  of  the  cargo  should  be  frequently  tested 
to  guard  against  the  danger  of  spontaneous  combustion.  The 
holds  should  be  properly  ventilated  and  during  fine  weather,  the 
hatches  removed. 


100  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

LOAD-LINE      MARKS,     DRAUGHT     OF     WATER,     AND     FREE- 
BOARD, ADOPTED   BY  THE   BRITISH    BOARD  OF  TRADE. 


At  the  present  time  no  standard  requirement  is  in  force  pro- 
viding for  load-line  marks  on  American  vessels.  The  following 
regulations  commonly  called  "Plimsoll"  marks  are  given  for  in- 
formation and  are  those  issued  by  the  British  Board  of  Trade. 

The  lines  to  be  used  in  order  to  indicate  the  maximum  load-line 
under  different  circumstances  and  at  different  seasons  shall  be  nine 
inches  in  length  and  one  inch  in  thickness,  and  the  maximum  load- 
line  shall  be  the  upper  edge  of  each  of  such  lines. 

The  said  lines  shall  be  horizontal  lines  marked  on  both  sides  of 
the  ship,  extending  from  and  at  right  angles  to  a  vertical  line 
marked  21  inches  forward  of  the  centre  of  the  disc.  The  maximum 
load-line  in  fresh  water  shall  be  marked  abaft  such  vertical  line, 
and  the  maximum  load-lines  in  salt  water  shall  be  marked  forward 
of  such  vertical  line,  as  shown  in  the  following  diagrams: 

FOR    STEAMSHIPS. 

Starboard  Side. 


W  -o 


_>WNA 

Port  Side 

IS 


The  arrow  ( »  points  in  the  direction  of  vessel's  head. 

Such  maximum  load-lines  shall  be  distinguished  by  initial  let- 
ters permanently  and  conspicuously  marked  opposite  such  horizon- 
tal lines  as  aforesaid,  such  initial  letters  being  as  follows: — 

P.  W. — Fresh  Water. 

I.  S. — Indian  Summer. 

W.— Winter.  ^ 

W.   N.  A. — Winter,  North  Atlantic. 

The  upper  edge  of  the  horizontal  line  passing  through  the  centre 
of  the  disc  shall  always  indicate  the  summer  freeboard  in  salt 
water. 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  101 


STATION   BILL 


A  station  bill  is  a  notice,  giving  definite  information  r,s  to  the 
post  or  station  of  duty  of  every  person  employed  on  boi^roi  the 
steamer  in  case  of  fire,  or  abandoning  ship  and  will  be  found  posted 
in  various  accessible  parts  of  the  vessel,  and  it  remains  the  im- 
perative duty  of  every  person  employed  on  board  to  acquaint  him- 
self with  his  station  of  duty  and  the  nature  of  the  alarm  signals 
used. 

General  fire  alarm  signal  shall  be  a  continuous  rapid  ringing 
of  the  ship's  bell  for  not  less  than  twenty  (20)  seconds,  and  this 
signal  shall  not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose  whatsoever.  The 
master  of  any  steamer  may  establish  such  other  emergency  sig- 
nals in  addition  to  the  ringing  of  the  ship's  bell,  as  will  provide 
that  all  officers  and  crew  of  the  steamer  will  have  positive  and  cer- 
tain notice  of  the  existing  emergency. 

General  Instructions  for  Fire  Drill 

1.  Upon   hearing    the    signal    for   fire    quarters,    each   member 
of  the  crew  will  take  a  station  quickly,  quietly,  and  without  crowd- 
ing or  confusion. 

2.  Upon  hearing  the  alarm,  attend  to  your  specific  duty,  which 
may  be  any  of  the  following: 

(a)  Leading  out  and  clearing  away  hose. 

(b)  Seeing  that  nozzles  are  coupled  and  secure. 

(c)  Opening  valves  to  fire  lines. 

(d)  Hand  pumps  clear  for  operating. 

(e)  Water  tight  doors  closed. 

(f)  Fire  extinguishers  taken  from  racks  and  to  stand 

by  for  instructions. 

(g)  Standing  by  with  filled  water  buckets. 

(h)     Standing    by   with    fire    axes    under    direction    of    Chief 
Officer  or  Master. 

(i)      Standing  by  to  assist  passengers  and  distributing 
life   preservers. 

(j)      Attending   and   turning   on   emergency   lights   dis- 
tributed throughout  the  vessel. 

(k)     Starting   fire   pump   under   direction    of   engineer. 

3.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  each  master  of  a  vessel 
may  have  individual   ideas  of  the  method   of  conducting  drill  and 
the  assignment  of  crew.     Also,   it  devolves  upon  each  member  of 
the   force   on   board   to   learn   thoroughly   the   method   used   on    the 
particular  vessel  on  which  he  serves  and  abide  by  the  wishes  of 
the  master. 

4.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  fire  drill — "Secure"  is  usually  given 
by   one   stroke    of   ship's   bell,    and    upon   hearing    this    signal    each 
member  of  the  crew  will  stand  by  at  his  station  for  the  "dismissed" 
signal. 

General  Boat  Alarm  Signal  may  be  six  short  blasts  of  steam 
whistle  or  sounding  on  the  siren. 


102 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


w 
M 
H 


^     fa       ^ 


MCD 
PH 

= 

^    1 
O 

S. 

CD     p 

CD 

P 


°1 


ST 


er< 


03 
A 
O 

1 

O 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


103 


.,  i 


i13 

IMI 


ill 

U  i 


I! 


1-  S 


3 


fill 


J 
ii  ..    ,H 

i  niii! 

|l  ||    ll! 


P' 
IS 

II! 


-  ii 

I  IS 


!l 
IS 

4!  ;  4! 


lii 


i 
Mi 


Si 


, 

ill'! 

IJJii 


II 


II 


ii 


I!]]- 


Hi 
i- 


il 


'll 


^ 


an 

& 


I 


liJi 

iju- 


104 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL 


A«emble  and  control  pattengert 
Warn  pattengert  section 

Bulkhead  door  tection 
Life  beltt  section 

Fire  bucket  fore  square 

Fire  extinguisher  tection 
Stretch  hose  tection 

Hydrant  key  section 
Fire  bucket  fore  square 

Warn  passengers  tection 
Fire  extinguither  section 
Stretch  hose  section 
Hose  nozzle  section 
Hydrant  key  tectibn 
Fire  bucket 

Warn  patsengeri  section 
Fire  extinguuher  tection 
Stretch  hose  tection 
Hose  nozzle  tection 
Hydrant  section 
Fire  bucket  fore  square 

Fire  extinguuher  section  - 
Stretch  hose  section 
Hose  nozzle  section 
Hydrant  key  section 
Fire  bucket  fore  square 

Fire  extinguither  section 
Hote  nozzle  section 
Stretch  note  section 

Fire  extinguisher  tection 
Hote  nozzle  section 
Stretch  hose  section 
Hydrant  key  section 
Fire  bucket  fore  square 

il  l=  3 

fcl 

ii^i 

it... 
ll-l 

\"i 

Steward  No. 
Cook 

?"i 

On  duty  remain  at  pott 
Off  duty  mutter  on  lower  deck 

ll 

H 

II 

On  duty  remain  at  port 
Off  duty  mutter  on  lower  deck 

On  duty  remain  at  port 
Off  duty  mutter  on  lower  deck 

si 

1  i 

>1 

I  s 

On  dirty  remain  at  pott 
Off  duty  mutter  on  lower  deck 

Engine 
Oiler 

Fireman  No.  | 
CoaloaMerNo.  j 

Engineer 
Fireman  No.  | 
Coalpaster  No.  ) 

Engineer 
Oiler 

Fireman  No.  ) 
Coalpas^rNo.  j 

Engineer 
F^emanN,.  J 
Coalpalter  No.  ) 

Engineer 
OUer 

Fireman  No.  , 
Coalpatter  No.  j 

Engineer 
FmananNo.  | 
Coalpatter  No.  j 

^S 

fall- 

|: 

i- 

.j 

Keep  lower  deck  clear  and  orderly 
Mutter  on  bridge 

Carpenter  to  report  to  Ch'f  Office, 
Muster  under  bridge 

|t 

? 

i 
i 

]i|" 

Jiii-- 
!'«•• 

Third  Officer 
In  charge 
Able  Seaman  No. 
Boat  Handler  No. 
"  No. 
"  "No. 

Able  Seaman*  No. 
In  charge 
Deck  Cadet  No. 
Boat  Handler  No. 
"  No. 
"  No. 

li.i" 
I'll- 

Lookoat  (AB.) 
Incite' 
Able  Seaman  No. 
Boat  Handler  No. 
«  "No. 
•  "No. 

Fourth  Officer 
In  charge 
Motor  Engineer 
Deck  Cadet  ' 
1  Boat  Handler  No. 
2  "  "No. 
3  "  "No. 

| 

i 

g 

1 

6 

& 

il 

THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


105 


3 
21 

o 

g 


I 


I 

o 
I 


1    II!    1*11      4 | 

HffiJi  •{ 

Is  as!-  !JKsi      f-» 


I  f|  *!" 


4' 


hi 

14-3 

«1ji 
ill 


illil 


H 

at 


1*1 
H 

H 
03  > 


i        I1! 

s  i      «-ii 
ij 


111 


u: 

mi 


<          S3          U          Q  CO      Cb 


U     Q 


106  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

General  Instructions  for  Boat  Drill 

1.  Upon  hearing  the  signal  for  "abandoning  ship,"  each  mem- 
ber of  the  crew  will  take  his  station  quickly,  quietly,  and  without 
crowding  or  confusion. 

2.  Upon  hearing  the  alarm,  attend  to  your  specific  duty,  which 
may  be  any  of  the  following: 

(a)  Attending  forward  or  after  boat  fall,  clearing  away 

same  and  making  ready  for  running. 

(b)  Removing  boat  cover  and  casting  off  gripes. 

(c)  In  boat  and  put  on  cap  of  automatic  plug. 

(d)  Taking  out  or  releasing  boat  chocks. 

(e)  Casting  off  forward  or  after  guys  after  the  boat  is 

hoisted  and  rehooking  after  boat  is  swung  out. 

(f)  In  boat  and  bearing  off  when  being  lowered. 

(g)  Securing  side  ladder. 

(h)  In  boat  and  casting  off  releasing  hook  lanyards 
or  standing  by  releasing  gear  lever. 

(i)  Directing  passengers  and  assisting  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  life  preservers. 

(j)      Casting  off  the  lashings  of  life  rafts. 

(k)     Attending  painter  of  boat  or  raft. 

3.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  each  master  of  a  vessel 
may  have  individual  ideas  of  the  method  of  conducting  drill  and 
the  assignment  of  crew.     Also,  it  is  encumbent  upon  each  member 
of   the   force   on    board    to    learn   thoroughly   the   method   used    on 
the  particular  vessel  on  which  he  serves  and  abide  by  the  wishes 
of  the  master. 

4.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  boat  drill  "Secure"  is  usually  given 
by  one  stroke  of  ship's  bell,  and  upon  hearing  this  signal  the  boats 
are  hoisted,  swung  in  and  replaced  in  their  chocks.     The  crew  will 
then  stand  by  for  "dismissed"  signal. 

Miscellaneous  Remarks  on  Duties  at  Fire  and  Boat  Drill 

1.  If   you   do   not    understand    your    duties    explicitly,    request 
one  of  the  mates  or  instructors  to  explain  them  to  you. 

2.  When  leading  out  hose,   see  that  there  are  no  kinks. 

3.  See  that  the  brakes  are  set  on  hand  pump. 

4.  Do  not  invert  fire  extinguishers  until  ready  for  action. 

5.  Drain  hose  before  coiling. 

6.  Be    sure   you   know   the   proper  method   of   belaying   a   fall 
and  lowering  away  a  boat  by  means  of  a  turn  on  the  davit  cleat. 

7.  Proper  method  of  adjusting  the  boat  plug,  and  of  handling 
releasing  device  should  be  understood. 

8.  Do  not  give  commands  to  others  but  obey  those  given  by 
the  officer  in  charge  of  your  fire  squad  or  in  charge  of  your  par- 

CU9ar  If  a  signal  is  heard  by  you,  quickly  determine  if  fire  or  boat 
alarm. 

General  Definitions  of  Ordinary  Terms  Used  in  Fire  and  Boat 

Drills 

Spanner:  An  instrument  used  for  coupling  or  uncoupling  hose 

Fire    main:     Line    of    piping    throughout    a    vessel,    connected 
with  fire  pump  and  various  outlets  or  fire  plugs. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  107 

Steam  smothering  pipe:  Connections  for  conveying  steam  to 
various  holds  of  vessels,  operated  by  series  of  valves  on  decK  or  in 
or  near  the  engine  department. 

Sprinklers:  System  of  perforated  piping  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tributing water  throughout  the  vessel  to  aid  in  extinguishing  fire. 

Manifold:  Central  distributing  point  from  which  various  lines  or 
piping  lead  to  different  sections  of  vessel  to  convey  steam  or  water. 

Automatic  boat  plug:  Arrangement  fitted  in  bilge  of  boat  to  per- 
mit of  the  freeing  of  water  automatically. 

Releasing  gear:  Arrangement  fitted  to  forward  and  after  ends 
of  boat  to  release  boat  from  falls. 

Equipment:  Various  articles  required  to  be  carried  in  each 
lifeboat. 

Chock:  Arrangement  under  boat— similar  to  cradle — which  holds 
boat  in  position  and  upright  on  deck. 

Belay:  Make  fast  the  boat  fall. 

Breast  off:  Hold  boat  clear  of  side  of  vessel  when  boat  is  being 
lowered  or  hoisted. 

Guys:  Fastenings  secured  to  davit  heads  and  leading  to  deck 
to  hold  davits  in  position. 

Span:  Fastening  between  davit  heads. 

Take  a  turn:  Take  a  turn  around  davit  cleat. 

Slack  away  handsomely:  Ease  slowly  the  fall  by  means  of  the 
cleat. 

Painter:  Rope  attached  to  bow  of  lifeboat,  by  means  of  which 
the  boat  may  be  held  in  position  alongside  of  vessel  when  in  the 
water. 

Life  lines:  Ropes  attached  to  span  used  as  means  of  steadying 
boat  when  being  lowered  to  water. 

BOAT  SERVICE 

The  following  words  are  the  orders  given  by  the  coxswain  or 
officer  of  a  boat  to  the  crew,  under  various  circumstances,  to  pro- 
duce a  desired  effect. 

Give  Way:    To  commence  rowing. 

Hold  Water:  To  impede  the  boat's  progress  by  keeping  the 
blades  of  the  oars  in  the  water  in  a  vertical  position,  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  keel. 

In  Bows:  To  cease  pulling  the  bow  oar  and  to  lay  it  down  fore 
and  aft  within  the  boat,  the  blade  forward. 

Let  Fall:  To  let  the  oars  drop  from  the  vertical  to  the  horizon- 
tal, the  loom  resting  in  the  rowlock,  the  blade  held  out  of  the  water 
and  horizontal,  the  oar  itself  at  right  angles  to  the  keel. 

Oars:  To  cease  rowing  and  to  maintain  the  oars  in  the  same 
position  that  they  are  in  after  executing  the  order  "Let  Fall." 

Ship  Oars:  To  lift  trailing  oars  out  of  the  water  alongside,  and 
hold  them  as  described  for  "Let  Fall." 

Shove  Off:  To  force  the  boat  away  from  a  vessel's  side  or  from 
a  wharf  or  float. 

Stern  All:  To  row  the  boat  backwards— the  opposite  to  "Give 
Way." 

Toss:  To  lift  the  oars  out  of  the  water  and  lay  them  down 
within  the  boat  fore  and  aft,  the  blades  forward. 

Trail:  To  throw  trailing  oars  out  of  the  rowlock  and  allow 
them  to  trail  alongside  by  their  lanyards. 

Up  Oars:  To  raise  the  oars  to  the  vertical,  the  blades  kept  fore 
and  aft — a  preface  to  the  order  "Let  Fall." 

Way  Enough:  To  cease  rowing,  and  to  lift  the  oars  out  of  the 
water  and  boat  them  at  the  coxswain's  word,  "Toss." 


108 THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

DUTIES  OF  COAL  PASSERS,  FIREMEN 
WATER-TENDERS  AND  OILERS. 


COAL  PASSERS 


Duties  on  Going  on  Watch 

On  being  called  to  go  on  watch,  the  coal  passer  reports,  to- 
gether with  the  firemen  of  his  watch,  to  get  out  ashes  that  have 
accumulated  in  the  fire  room  during  the  previous  -, watch.  This  is 
done  before  8  bells. 

At  8  bells,  the  coal  passer  goes  on  watch  and  assists  the  fire- 
men in  cleaning  of  the  fires.  As  the  firemen  haul  out  clinkers 
and  ashes  from  the  fires,  the  coal  passers  wet  them  down  with 
water  jfrom  the  fire  room  hose.  When  fires  are  cleaned,  the  coal 
passer'  hauls  ashes  from  ash  pits  and  shovels  all  ashes  away  from 
the  fronts  of  the  boilers  to  a  place  provided  for  same. 

During  the  watch  he  keeps  the  firemen  supplied  with  coal  from 
the  bunkers.  On  first  leaving  port,  the  coal  runs  out  of  the  bunker 
doors  but  in  a  short  time  the  coal  has  to  be  brought  out  of  the 
bunkers. 

When  time  arrives  for  getting  out  the  ashes  that  have  accumu- 
lated during  his  watch  it  is  the  coal  passer's  duty  to  fill  the  ash 
buckets  for  thfe  next  watch  to  hoist  and  dump  overboard.  If  the 
vessel  is  fitted  with  ash  ejectors  he  shovels  the  ashes  in  the  hop- 
per. 

In  port,  the  coal  passer  sweeps  the  tubes,  cleans  out  the  back 
connections,  scales  and  cleans  the  inside  of  the  boilers,  and  does 
such  general  cleaning  and  similar  work,  under  the  direction  of  the 
engineer  in  charge  of  the  fire  rooms,  as  may  be  required. 


FIREMEN 


Duties  on  Going  on  Watch 

Where  no  ash  ejector  is  fitted,  the  firemen  report  to  get  out 
ashes  that  have  accumulated  during  the  previous  watch.  This  is 
done  before  8  bells.  At  8  bells,  the  firemen  go  on  watch  and  clean 
the  fires  that  have  been  burned  down  by  the  firemen  who  are 
relieved.  This  is  done  in  one  of  two  ways;  either  by  working  the 
fire  all  over  to  one  side  of  the  furnace  with  the  slice  bar,  and  haul- 
ing out  the  clinker  and  ashes  from  the  grates  on  the  other  side 
with  a  hoe,  then  working  the  fire  back  to  the  clean  side  of  grates 
with  the  slice  bar  and  hauling  out  clinker  and  ashes  from  the  other 
side;  the  fire  is  then  spread  over  the  entire  grate,  and  covered 
with  coal.  The  other  way  is  to  shove  all  the  fire  to  the  back  half 
of  the  furnace  with  the  cleaning  hoe,  haul  out  the  ashes  and  clinker 
from  the  front  of  the  grate  bars,  then  haul  the  good  fire  on  the 
clean  front  grate  bars,  and  haul  out  the  ashes  and  clinker  from 
the  back  half  of  the  grate  bars  over  the  top  of  the  fire  in  the  front. 
The  fire  is  then  spread  over  the  entire  grate  bars  and  covered  in 
the  same  manner.  It  is  customary  and  better  practice  to  have  a 
supply  of  broken  lumps  of  coal  to  cover  the  fire  after  cleaning,  as 
this  permits  a  freer  passage  of  air  through  the  fire,  thereby  hasten- 
ing the  building  up  of  the  fire. 

Firing  soft  or  bituminous  coal  consists  of  3  operations,  cover- 
ing, slicing  and  raking.  The  coal  is  thrown  on  the  front  half  of 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  109 

the  fire,  where  it  cakes  and  cokes.  The  fire  is  then  broken  up 
with  the  slice  bar,  which  is  a  long  bar  of  iron,  pointed  on  one  end 
with  a  handle  on  the  other.  This  is  passed  under  the  fire  directly 
on  the  grate  bars  and  on  bearing  down  on  the  outer  end  the  bar 
passes  up  through  the  fire,  breaking  up  the  caked  mass,  thus  al- 
lowing a  free  passage  of  air  through  it. 

in  a  short  time,  the  coked  fuel  in  the  front,  which  is  now 
a  glowing  mass  of  fire,  is  shoved  to  the  back  end  of  the  fire  with 
a  small  hoe  or  a  clinker  hook.  A  clinker  hook  is  made  with  prongs 
on  the  end  instead  of  a  blade,  as  a  hoe  has.  These  operations  are 
carried  on  in  uniform  regularity,  and  are  summed  up  in  the  "for- 
mula" shovel,  slice  and  rake.  In  firing  soft  coal,  it  is  necessary  to 
insert  the  slice  bar  under  the  clinker  which  forms  on  the  grate 
bars  and  clogs  the  air  passages  through  the  bars. 

A  short  time  previous  to  the  end  of  the  watch,  usually  15  to 
20  minutes,  the  fireman  burns  down  the  fires  that  are  to  be  cleaned 
by  the  fireman  who  relieves  him.  This  is  simply  not  putting  any 
fresh  coal  on  the  fire  and  working  it  with  the  slice  bar  and  clinker 
hook,  as  above  described,  until  it  is  partly  burned  out,  so  as  to  leave 
only  sufficient  fire  to  be  easily  shoved  to  one  side  or  to  the  back 
end  of  the  furnace,  and  have  sufficient  to  start  a  new  fire.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  this  is  not  done  too  soon,  or  the  fire  will  be 
burned  down  so  low  as  to  be  useless  for  the  purpose  of  making 
steam. 

In  port,  the  fireman  has  various  duties  to  perform.  He  is 
usually  detailed  to  the  engine  room,  and  keeps  all  bright  work  on 
the  engines  cleaned,  brass  work  polished,  paint  scrubbed,  does 
whatever  painting  is  done  in  the  engine  room.  He  also  assists  in 
the  overhauling  of  the  engines,  his  part  of  the  work  consisting  of 
manipulating  the  hoisting  gear  used  in  raising  and  lowering  cylin- 
der heads,  journals,  etc.  He  does  all  the  tightening  up  of  the  nuts 
on  the  bearing  bolts,  which  is  done  with  a  sledge  hammer.  In 
doing  this  work  he  has  a  splendid  opportunity  of  learning  how  this 
very  important  work  is  performed,  a  knowledge  that  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  a  man  to  obtain  before  he  can  be  promoted  to  a 
higher  position. 

A  fireman  must  also  be  prepared  to  perform  any  duties  that 
he  is  directed  to  perform  by  his  superior  officers.  On  watch  he  is 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  water  tender  in  his  fireroom, 
and  also  under  the  engineer  who  is  in  charge  of  the  firerooms.  In 
Tiort,  he  is  under  the  supervision,  when  detailed  to  the  engine  room, 
of  the  assistant  engineer  in  charge  of  the  work. 


OILERS 


Duties  on  Going  on  Watch 

An  oiler  goes  down  in  the  engine  room  15  or  20  minutes  before 
8  bells.  His  first  duty  is  to  see  that  all  journals  are  running  cool. 
This  is  done  by  feeling  every  working  part  of  the  engines.  Start- 
ing with  the  cross  heads  and  guides,  he  then  goes  to  the  lower 
platform  and  feels  crankpins  and  main  journals,  then  in  the  shaft 
alley,  feeling  thrust  bearing  and  all  the  shaft  journals.  He  also 
feels  the  tail  shaft  stuffing  box  and  notices  whether  it  is  leaking 
excessively.  There  should  be  a  slight  leakage  in  order  to  lubricate 
the  packing  in  this  stuffing  box. 


110 THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

He  should  also  notice  all  auxiliary  engines,  such  as  circulating 
pumps,  feed  pumps  if  in  engine  rooms,  electric  light  engines,  steer- 
ing engine  if  in  engine  room,  sanitary  pump,  etc.  He  should  see 
that  all  oil  cups  and  cylinder  lubricators  are  filled  and  a  supply  of 
oil  for  use  during  the  watch  is  on  hand.  He  looks  in  the  bilges  to 
see  that  there  is  not  an  excessive  amount  of  water  in  them.  He 
also  notes  whether  water  service  is  running  through  the  journals. 

In  port,  he  assists  the  engineers  in  the  overhauling  of  the  en- 
gines. Many  times  he  is  entrusted  with  the  job  of  overhauling  the 
smaller  units  of  the  machinery,  and  he  should  be  able  to  perform 
these  duties.  He  should  be  able  to  take  leads  off  a  journal  and  see 
that  it  is  in  proper  working  condition.  He  must  be  able  to  overhaul 
all  pumps  and  see  that  they  are  properly  packed  and  valves  in  good 
condition  and  should  be  able  to  tell  whether  the  valves  require  re- 
newing. He  should  be  familiar  with  the  capacities  of  oil  tanks  and 
be  able  to  compute  their  capacity. 

An  oiler  can  only  learn  by  experience  about  the  working  con- 
ditions of  journals.  This  alone  will  tell  him  whether  a  journal  is 
showing  excessive  heat,  and  he  should  be  able  to  tell  when  a  jour- 
nal is  beginning  to  overheat  in  order  that  measures  may  be  taken 
to  prevent  it  becoming  hot  and  melting  out  the  metal  in  it.  The 
amount  of  oil  necessary  to  keep  a  journal  working  properly  without 
using  an  excessive  quantity,  which  is  wasteful,  varies  with  the  con- 
ditions, such  as  size  of  journal,  tightness  of  same,  also  temperature 
of  engine  room  and  quality  of  oil.  A  bright  young  man  will  soon 
learn  this  part  of  his  duty. 

An  oiler  should  be  able  to  do  many  of  the  mechanical  jobs  that 
are  done  aboard  a  ship  with  tools.  He  should  know  how  to  set  up 
a  ratchet  and  drill  and  drill  a  hole  true  and  fair,  also  be  able  to 
grind  the  drills.  He  should  learn  how  to  use  a  hammer  and  chisel 
and  file,  in  order  that  he  may  be  able  to  do  the  many  small  jobs 
that  are  necessary  to  be  done  under  the  supervision  of  the  en- 
gineers. 

All  renewals  of  joints  and  packing  of  valves  are  done  by  the 
oilers,  and  he  should  be  able  and  willing  to  perform  any  duties  he 
is  called  on  to  perform  by  his  superior  officers. 


WATER  TENDERS 


A  water  tender  has  various  and  very  important  duties  to  per- 
form aboard  a  ship.  Usually  he  is  a  man  who  has  served  his  ap- 
prenticeship as  a  coal  passer  and  fireman,  although  frequently  an 
oiler,  who  desires  to  learn  the  fireroom  routine,  asks  for  and  obtains 
a  watertender's  position. 

On  going  on  watch,  the  water  tender  goes  below  at  least  15 
minutes  before  8  bells.  His  first  duty  is  to  see  that  there  is  a 
proper  amount  of  water  in  the  boilers.  He  must  blow  out  all  the 
gauge  glasses  and  try  the  gauge  cocks  by  opening  each  one.  A 
water  tender  cannot  be  too  careful  in  performing  this  duty  as  it 
frequently  happens  that  a  gauge  glass  does  not  show  the  true  level 
of  water  in  the  boiler  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  it  sometimes  be- 
comes stopped  up.  When  this  occurs,  the  glass  is  blown  out  by 
first  shutting  off  the  bottom  valve  and  blowing  through  the  top 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  111 

valve,  then  opening  the  bottom  valve,  shutting  off  the  top  valve, 
and  blowing  through  the  bottom  valve.  This  is  done  through  the 
drain  valve  that  is  fitted  to  the  bottom  of  the  gauge  glass. 

On  ascertaining  the  true  water  level  in  the  boilers  he  should  have 
a  look  at  the  fires  that  are  to  be  cleaned  to  see  that  they  are  prop- 
ly  burned  down.  Then  see  that  a  sufficient  supply  of  coal  has  been 
placed  on  the  floor  plates  convenient  to  the  fires,  especially  the 
ones  that  are  to  be  cleaned.  See  that  all  ashes  have  been  cleaned 
out  of  the  ash  pans,  and  out  of  the  fire  room.  See  that  the  bilges 
do  not  have  an  undue  amount  of  water  in  them,  that  feed  pumps 
are  working  properly.  In  fact,  see  that  everything  in  the  fire-rooms 
which  he  is  to  take  charge  of  is  in  proper  order,  when  he  will 
relieve  the  water  tender  going  off  the  watch. 

During  the  watch  he  must  maintain  the  proper  water  level  in 
the  boilers  by  manipulating  the  check  valves  on  the  boilers,  opening 
the  one  on  the  boiler  in  which  the  water  level  is  dropping,  and 
closing  the  one  on  the  boiler  in  which  the  water  level  is  going  up, 
frequently  trying  his  gauge  cocks  to  see  that  the  glass  is  showing 
the  true  level. 

He  also  has  general  supervision  9f  the  firemen  and  coal  passers, 
seeing  that  they  perform  their  duties  properly,  working  the  fires 
properly  and  in  turn.  See  that  the  bilges  are  kept  pumped  out,  all 
under  the  general  supervision  of  the  engineer  in  charge  of  the 
watch. 

In  port,  he  also  has  various  duties  to  perform.  He  must  see 
that  tubes  are  swept,  connections  cleaned  out,  boilers  cleaned  in- 
ternally and  externally.  He  must  also  be  familiar  enough  with  the 
interior  of  a  boiler  to  be  able  to  detect  any  damage  or  weakness 
such  as  broken  stays,  furnaces  coming  down,  interior  feed  pipes 
adrift,  in  fact  anything  wrong.  It  is  also  his  duty  to  pack  all 
valve  stems  that  require  it,  such  as  main  and  auxiliary  stop  valves, 
feed  check  stop  valves,  and  all  other  valves  in  the  fire  rooms.  He 
also  must  be  able  to  renew  all  joints  on  pipe  lines  where  necessary, 
and  he  should  have  such  a  knowledge  of  the  conditions  in  the  fire 
rooms  as  to  be  able  to  tell  when  this  work  is  necessary.  If  the 
feed  pumps  are  placed  in  the  fire  rooms,  as  they  sometimes  are,  it 
is  his  duty  to  overhaul  same,  examining  valves,  packing  where 
necessary  and  be  able  to  tell  what  repairs  are  necessary  to  them. 
He  also  should  be  able  to  grind  in  any  valves  on  the  boilers  that 
require  it,  and  should  be  able  To  tell  when  it  is  necessary. 

He  should  also  be  familiar  enough  with  the  repairing  of 
boilers  to  see  that  repairs  are  being  done  properly.  If  a  tube 
should  give  out  on  watch  he  has  to  plug  it.  This  is  done  in  sev- 
eral ways.  Sometimes  a  wooden  plug  is  driven  into  the  tube  until 
it  covers  the  leak.  Another  way  is  by  use  of  patent  tube  stoppers, 
which  are  heavy  rubber  washers  that  just  slip  into  the  tube.  Be- 
tween these  washers  is  a  piece  of  pipe,  and  through  washers  and 
pipe  is  a  rod  threaded  on  each  end  and  nuts  on  same.  This  ar- 
rangement is  made  up  in  various  lengths  and  when  a  tube  gives 
out  a  stopper  is  selected  that  will  allow  one  washer  to  pass  in  be- 
yond the  leak,  and  the  other  enter  in  the  front  end  of  the  tube. 
On  tightening  up  the  nut  on  the  outer  end  of  the  rod,  the  washers 
are  squeezed  out  against  the  tube,  forming  a  water-tight  joint. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  cap  the  tubes.  This  is  done  by  plac- 
ing caps  that  fit  over  the  ends  of  the  tubes.  These  caps  are  made 
tight  with  red  lead  putty.  A  rod,  with  a  nut  on  each  end  is  run 
through  the  caps  and  tubes,  and  when  nuts  are  screwed  up  the 
caps  form  a  water-tight  joint.  To  perform  this  operation  the 
fires  have  to  be  drawn,  pressure  blown  off  the  boilers,  and  a  man 
has  to  enter  the  combustion  chamber  in  order  to  place  the  cap  on 
the  back  end. 


112 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL 


MARINE  BOILERS  AND  ACCESSORIES. 


TYPES  OF  BOILERS. 


A  steam  boiler  has  inside  the  outer  shell,  three  principal  parts: 
A  place  for  the  fire,  a  place  for  the  water  and  metal  surfaces  sep- 
arating them  from  each  other. 

The  value  of  the  boiler  when  in  use,  depends  almost  entirely 
upon  the  amount  of  fire-heated  surface  compared  with  the  water 
contents  of  the  boiler.  Therefore  it  is  good  practice  to  make  boil- 
ers with  a  series  of  tubes  running  from  end  to  end  of  the  heating 
section,  in  order  to  carry  the  heat  through  the  water  or  the  water 
through  the  heat. 

The  ideal  condition  exists  in  a  boiler  when  no  part  of  the 
water  is  very  far  from  a  fire-heated  surface. 

There  are  two  general  types  of  boiler:  The  watertube  and  the 
firetube.  If  the  heat  from  the  fire  passes  in  tubes  through  the 
water  the  boiler  is  known  as  a  firetube  boiler  and  if  the  water 
passes  in  tubes  through  the  heated  area  it  is  known  as  a  watertube 
boiler. 


SHELL 

Fig.  9.     Scotch  Boiler 

The  return  tubular  or  Scotch  boiler  is  the  type  of  firetube 
boiler  generally  used  in  marine  work.  A  general  idea  of  its  in- 
ternal arrangement  is  shown  as  Fig.  9. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


113 


Fig.  10  shows  an  end  view  of  a  three  furnace  firetube  boiler. 


•*••••••• 

oooooooo 
•  •oo<3CJ 


•ooooooooo  j 
•oo«oo«oo« 
oooooooooo£i 


•oooooooo* 


•oooooooooo 

•••••0000 


Fig.  10.     Scotch  Boilei 

Above  the  line  of  tubes  showing  on  boiler  front  Fig.  10  will  be 
noted  several  lines  of  six-sided  or  sexagonal  nuts  which  are 
screwed  on  to  the  ends  of  reinforcing  rods  extending  back  to  the 
combustion  chamber.  These  are  called  screw  stay-bolts  and  the 
following  diagram  shows  their  construction. 


Improved  Screw  Stay 


114 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


The  latest  regulations  relative  to  the  make  of  Stay  Bolts  are 
as  follows: — 

All  screw  stay  bolts  shall  be  drilled  at  the  ends  with  a  three- 
sixteenths-inch  hole  to  at  least  a  depth  of  one-half  inch  beyond 
the  inside  surface  of  the  sheet.  Stays  through  laps  or  butt  straps 
may  be  drilled  with  larger  hole  to  a  depth  so  that  the  inner  end 
of  said  larger  hole  shall  not  be  nearer  than  the  thickness  of  the 
boiler  plates  from  the  inner  surface  of  the  boiler.  Hollow-rolled 
screw  stay  bolts  may  be  used. 


Fig.  11.     Scotch  Boiler,  Longitudinal  Section 

Fig.  11  gives  a  sectional  view  of  the  modern  type  giving  some 
detail  of  the  construction  of  a  Scotch  boiler. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


115 


The  type  shown  has  furnaces  at  one  end  and  is  called  a  single- 
end  with  a  combustion  chamber  at  the  back  end.  The  double-end 
boiler  has  furnaces  at  both  ends  and  the  most  satisfactory  type 
has  separate  combustion  chambers  for  each  set  of  furnaces. 

These  boilers  are  cylindrical  in  shape  and  set  horizontally,  the 
heat  and  smoke  from  the  fire  passing  from  the  fire-box,  through 
the  combustion  chamber,  returning  through  the  tubes  shown  over 
the  furnaces  in  Fig.  10  and  passing  through  the  up-take  to  the 
funnel. 


Fig.  25.     One  of  the  many  Types  of  Coal  Burning  Watertube  Boilers. 

Merchant  Vessels  use  firetube  boilers  almost  to  the  exclusion 
of  other  types,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  United  States  Navy 
uses  watertube  boilers  to  the  same  degree  on  account  of  their 
ability  to  generate  horsepower  readily  under  forced  draft.  A  num- 
ber of  fast  passenger  steamers,  known  as  "Ocean  Greyhounds" 


116 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


also  use  watertube  boilers  for  the  same  reason.  The  diagram  on 
the  preceding  page  gives  a  good  general  idea  of  a  modern  water- 
tube  boiler. 

Fresh-water  feed  is  absolutely  necessary  for  a  watertube 
boiler  and  it  is  more  difficult  for  the  boiler-room  force  to  operate 
a  watertube  boiler. 

The  peculiar  "rake"  or  angle  at  which  the  tubes  are  placed  in 
watertube  boiler  as  shown  in  Fig.  25  is  designed  to  speed  up  the 
circulation  of  the  water. 

SAFETY  VALVES. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  boiler  fittings  is  the  Safety 
Valve  which  is  intended  to  allow  the  escape  of  confined  pressure 
in  the  boiler  when  the  pressure  has  mounted  to  the  danger  point. 

Safety  Valves  are  of  two  general  types,  lever  and  spring.  The 
lever  type  has  been  generally  abandoned  because  in  some  cases 
when  valves  have  leaked  or  blown  for  some  reason,  extra  weights 
were  hung  on  the  lever  to  keep  the  valve  closed.  The  spring  type, 
of  which  cuts  are  shown  herewith,  is  the  only  one  considered,  and 
is  not  liable  to  be  used  in  an  objectionable  manner. 


Enlarged  Section  of  Lip 


Safety  Valve  and  Muffler 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


117 


The  operation  of  the  valve  depends  upon  the  spring  shown, 
which  is  set  to  open  when  the  steam  pressure  reaches  the  danger 
point  and  when  the  pressure  has  been  reduced  to  normal  it  closes 
automatically. 


Xever 


Index  plai 


Duplex   Safety  Valve,  showing  Names  of  Parts 


WATER  GAUGE  AND  TEST  COCKS. 

There  should  be  at  all  times  while  a  boiler  is  in  operation  a 
sufficient  amount  of  water  in  order  to  make  steam,  and  the  space 
above  this  water  contains  the  steam  reserve  supply. 

In  order  to  know  at  all  times  just  where  the  water  line  is  in  a 
boiler,  a  line  of  test  cocks  is  placed  vertically  on  the  boiler  front. 
To  determine  at  a  glance  without  opening  a  test  cock  where  the 
water  line  is  in  the  boiler,  the  water  gauge  as  shown  in  the  dia- 
gram is  supplied. 

Connected  on  a  pipe  column,  which  is  joined  to  the  boiler 
above  and  below  the  water  line,  the  water  level  in  the  glass,  on  the 
principle  that  water  finds  its  own  level,  shows  the  water  level  in 
the  boiler. 

Water  gauge  cocks  are  placed  at  top  and  bottom  so  that  in 
case  of  breakage  of  glass  the  steam  can  be  shut  off.  The  modern 
gauge  cock  has  a  metal  safety  ball  which  rises  automatically 
against  a  seat  when  the  glass  breaks  and  closes  the  opening. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  gauge  glass  is  the  pet-cock  to  drain  the 
glass  in  order  that  it  may  be  taken  out  and  cleaned. 


118 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 


It  is  well  not  to  depend  on   the  water  line  as   shown  in  the 
water  gauge,  but  to  test  from  the  line  of  gauge  cocks  as  well. 


Water  Gages 


If  the  water  does  not  show  in  the  glass,  test  by  means  of  the 
lowest  gauge  cock  and  if  no  water  shows  do  not  feed  any  in,  but 
immediately  draw  the  fire.  This  is  very  important. 


STEAM  GAUGE. 

Indicated  Steam  Pressure  shown  on  the  steam  gauge  at  the 
boiler  front  shows  the  excess  over  atmospheric  pressure  which  is 
14.7  pounds  per  sq.  inch.  The  needle  is  therefore  said  to  indicate 
steam  pressure. 

The  diagram  shows  a  section  of  the  clock-like  face  of  the 
gauge,  and  also  of  the  working  parts.  The  dip  or  "trap"  in  the 
pipe  leading  to  the  gauge  fills  with  water  and  prevents  the  harm- 
ful action  of  live  steam  on  the  sensitive  working  parts  of  the 
gauge. 

[Steam  is  an  energy  force,  but  if  asked  to  define  the  word, 
just  remember  that  "steam  is  an  invisible  gaseous  fluid"  not  the 
white  mist  which  you  see,  which  is  vapor,  but  the  invisible  some- 
thing between  the  end  of  the  open  pipe  and  what  most  people 
call  steam.] 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  119 


Bourdon  Steam  Gage 

AUTOMATIC   INJECTOR   [Water-feed]. 

The  water  feed  to  boilers  is  pumped  in  by  various  means, 
among  which  is  the  device  known  as  the  Injector,  which  accomp- 
lishes what  seems  to  be  impossible.  In  operation  the  injector  con- 
nected with  the  stea.m  boiler  overcomes  the  pressure  and  forces 
heated  water  into  the  boiler  against  a  higher  pressure  than  that 
under  which  the  injector  operates.  The  cut  shown  gives  a  good 
idea  of  the  working  parts. 


120 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


The  upper  inlet  marked,  B,  is  connected  with  steampipe  from 
boiler,  the  lower  inlet  also  marked,  B,  connects  with  the  water- 
tank  or  other  supply.  About  a  quarter-turn  of  the  handle  admits 
steam  and  starts  water  upward,  the  iiow  gradually  increasing  until 
a  solid  stream  shows  coming  from  the  test  pipe  at  bottom  near  feed 
pipe.  A  further  turn  of  the  handle  closes  the  test  pipe  and  forces 


INJECTOR 


the  water  through  the  opening  D,  and  out  of,  B,  at  the  extreme 
right,  into  the  boiler.  [The  handle,  K,  when  turned  admits  the 
steam  through,  S,  and  the  steam  forcing  into,  V,  exhausts  the  air  in 
the  chamber,  G.  This  causes  the  water  to  rise  up  in  the  chamber, 
B,  and  in  turn  the  water  is  forced  through  into  the  passage,  CD, 
and  when  the  test  pipe  is  closed,  passes  into  the  piping  leading  to 
the  boiler.]  The  injector  will  start  with  about  25  or  30  pounds  of 
steam  and  feed  against  any  ordinary  pressure  in  the  boiler. 


STOP  VALVES.    * 

At  the  point  where  the  main  steampipe  leaves  the  boiler  is 
located  the  main  stop  valve  shown  in  the  diagram. 

This  valve  is  used  to  shut  off  the  steam  from  the  system  if 
desired  and  in  cases  where  a  series  of  boilers  is  arranged  side 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


121 


by  side  in  battery  formation,  if  it  is  desired  to  "cut-out"  or  dis- 
continue for  a  time  the  use  of  a  boiler  this  valve  may  be  closed, 
the  fire  drawn  and  the  boiler  allowed  to  cool. 

[Note.  It  may  be  well  just  here  to  say  that  if  a  cold  boiler 
is  being  "cut-in"  to  a  battery  which  is  in  use,  care  must  be  taken 
to  open  the  stop  valve  slowly  as  the  sudden  jar  caused  in  the 
heated  boilers  by  rapid  opening  of  this  valve  may  cause  an  ex- 
plosion.] 


Boiler  Main  Stop  Valve 


Stop  valves  with  large  disc  areas  are  sometimes  equipped  with 
a  by- pass  pipe  of  smaller  size  controlled  by  a  valve  which  is  opened 
gradually  until  the  pressure  is  equalized  and  then  the  larger  valve 
is  opened  wide  and  the  by-pass  closed. 


122 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 


CHECK  VALVES. 

Check  valves  are  valves  which  close  automatically  against  and 
automatically  open  with  the  pressure.  In  the  diagram  shown  the 
inlet  is  at  the  bottom  and  the  check  or  valve  is  shown  seated. 
Water  or  steam  pressure  will  raise  the  disc  or  "check"  and  pass 
by,  but  if  the  pressure  is  greater  above  the  disc  it  will  remain 
closed. 


Boiler  Check  Valve 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


123 


Combined  Check  and  Stop  Valve* 


FUSIBLE  PLUGS. 

A  bronze  casing,  threaded  on  the  outside,  with  a  core  taper- 
ing continuously  and  evenly  from  end  to  end  and  filled  from  end 
to  end  with  tin  that  will  fuse  at  low  temperature,  the  larger  end 
in  every  instance  being  in  contact  with  the  water  and  pressure 
from  inside  the  boiler. 

In  fire  box,  Scotch  and  other  types  of  shell  boilers,  two  plugs 
are  screwed  in  the  crown  sheet  at  the  top  of  combustion  cham- 
ber near  the  center  and  not  more  than  12"  apart.  Two  kinds  of 
plugs  are  used,  called  inside  and  outside  plugs,  the  former  being 
inserted  from  the  inside  of  boiler  and  the  latter  from  the  com- 
bustion chamber  side. 

Fusible  plugs  are  intended  as  a  low  water  alarm,  and  are  so 
placed  that  the  larger  end  of  the  tin  filling  shall  be  at  least  1" 
higher  on  the  water  side  than  the  plate  to  which  they  are  fitted. 
When  the  water  drops  below  the  plug,  the  tin  filling  is  melted  out 
by  the  heat  of  the  fire,  causing  the  escape  of  steam,  which  is  a 
warning  of  low  water. 

Fusible  plugs  should  be  drawn  and  examined  on  both  ends 
occasionally  because  sediment  in  the  water  often  forms  a  deposit 
on  the  crown  sheet  covering  the  top  of  the  plug,  exposing  it  to  the 
heat  of  the  fire  below  with  no  protection  from  the  water  overhead. 
A  hard  scale,  which  is  a  non-conductor  of  hea>t,  sometimes  forms 
on  the  fire  side  of  the  fusible  plug  and  prevents  the  melting  of  the 
tin  in  case  of  low  water. 


124 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


THE  USE  OF  OIL  FOR  FUEL 
ON  STEAM  VESSELS. 


View  of  Fire  Room  Southern  Pacific  S.  S.  Co.'s  Steamship  "El  Norte" 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


125 


K 


Section  of  Furnace  Front  showing  Radial  Vanes. 


The  use  of  oil  fuel  for  marine  purposes  comprises  essentially 
the  burning  of  oil  in  the  furnaces  of  steam  boilers. 

The  oil  is  pumped  aboard  ship  from  a  lighter  or  from  a  shore 
pipe-line,  entering  by  one  of  the  filling-pipe  connections  on  either 
side  of  the  ship,  usually  above  the  main  deck.  Thence  it  flows  by 
gravity  to  the  service  tank  or  to  the  manifold,  through  which  the 
oil  is  distributed  to  the  storage  or  fuel  tanks  in  the  double-bottom 
of  the  ship. 


126 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


Forced  Draft  Furnace  Front. 


By  means  of  the  transfer  or  cargo  pump  and  manifold  the 
oil  may  be  moved  from  any  fuel  tank  to  the  service  or  settling 
tank,  or  vice  versa,  thus  permitting  any,  desired  distribution  to 
be  effected  by  operating  the  proper  valves.  In  most  ships,  the  oil 
is  transferred  from  the  fuel  or  storage  tanks  to  the  service  or 
settling  tank,  which  is  usually  kept  from  half  to  three  quarters 
full. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


127 


The  oil  is  then  drawn  from  this  tank  by  the  pressure  pump 
through  duplex  strainers,  on  the  discharge  side  of  the  pressure 
pump,  the  oil  passing  through  another  duplex  strainer  and  thence 
through  the  heaters  where  its  temperature  is  raised  to  between  150° 
and  275°  F,  depending  upon  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  and  the  degree  of 
heat  necessary  to  render  it  fluid. 


Arrangement  of  Furnace  for  Forced  Draught. 


After  passing  through  the  heaters  at  a  pressure  of  about  90 
Ibs.  the  oil  next  passes  through  another  duplex  strainer  to  the 
oil  feed  line,  thence  to  the  burners. 

On  the  end  of  the  oil  feed  line  a  return  line  is  usually  fitted  to 
allow  the  oil  to  circulate  through  the  heaters  or  return  to  the 
service  tank.  The  chief  purpose  of  this  is  to  afford  a  means  of 
ensuring  a  supply  of  warmed  oil  when  starting  fires. 

SETTLING  TANKS 

If  the  oil  put  aboard  a  vessel  contains  water  in  material 
amount,  or  if  the  double  bottom  tanks  leak  slightly  and  admit 
small  quantities  of  sea  water,  then  this  oil  is  pumped  out  of  the 
fuel  tanks  into  the  settling  tanks  where  it  is  allowed  to  settle  and 
the  water  drawn  off.  from  the  bottom  of  tank. 

In  ships  using  oil  as  fuel  the  settling  tanks  are  usually  fitted 
so  that  while  the  fuel  pump  is  taking  oil  from  one  tank  the  oil  in 
the  other  will  be  settling  and  ready  to  be  used  as  fuel  when  the 
first  tank  is  emptied. 


128 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL         129 

METHOD  OF  OPERATING 

In  case  the  ship  is  laid  up  with  no  steam  or  air  available  it 
will  be  necessary  to  have  a  hand  force  pump  aboard  connected  to 
fuel  tanks  and  oil  feed  line  so  that  oil  may  be  furnished  to  burner 
to  raise  steam  on  the  boiler  in  order  to  operate  fuel  pumps. 

Some  ships  are  fitted  with  a  Donkey  boiler  and  a  small 
quantity  of  coal  to  be  used  for  just  such  an  emergency. 

A  torch  for  lighting1  the  burners  is  made  of  a  hooked  rod  with 
either  waste  or  asbestos  wicking  wrapped  around  the  end  and 
dipped  in  oil.  Open  all  air  ducts  to  give  as  much  air  as  possible  to 
the  furnace,  then  open  the  oil  valve  on  the  burner  slightly  and 
insert  the  lighted  torch  through  peep  hole  in  furnace  front  and 
hold  close  in  front  of  the  burner  until  oil  is  ignited,  then  ex- 
tinguish the  torch  and  return  it  to  its  proper  place. 

The  burner  should  be  regulated  with  the  proper  amount  of 
air  and  oil  until  the  burner  as  viewed  through  the  peep  holes 
shows  a  bright  white  flame.  Until  the  furnace  is  well  heated  an 
extra  supply  of  air  will  be  needed  to  prevent  smoke.  When  the 
furnace  becomes  heated  the  air  can  be  reduced  to  the  desired 
quantity. 

The  other  burners  may  be  lighted  as  needed,  first  being  sure 
that  the  air  ducts  are  open.  In  case  of  vibration  or  drumming, 
shut  off  the  burner  until  the  blower  is  speeded  up  and  sufficient 
air  is  obtained. 

The  best  results  will  be  obtained  when  a  light  gray  smoke 
shows  at  the  top  of  funnel. 

THE    BURNERS 

The  burners  are  generally  of  the  mechanical  atomizing  type 
all  of  which  operate  on  the  same  general  principle. 

Th  mechanism  for  atomizing  consists  of  a  cone  shaped  plug 
seating  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  tip  and  held  in  position 
by  a  spring.  The  oil  passes  along  grooves  cut  in  the  cone  shaped 
plug,  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  deliver  the  oil  tangentially  to 
the  central  chamber  in  the  tip  and  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 

This  type  of  burner  requires  no  controlling  or  needle  valve 
to  regulate  the  oil,  the  amount  of  fuel  being  regulated  by  the 
pump  pressure.  The  tips  are  interchangeable  and  may  be  readily 
removed  for  cleaning  and  renewal. 

HEATERS 

The  heaters  are  cylindrical  in  shape  and  have  a  single  head 
containing  stuffing  boxes  through  which  the  ends  of  the  heating 
coils  pass.  The  coil  ends  are  made  oil  tight  by  means  of  stuffing 
boxes  and  glands.  All  connections  being  outside,  the  possibility 
of  oil  leakage  in  the  heater  is  eliminated. 

The  oil  is  heated  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  its  viscosity  to 
that  requisite  for  rapid  transit  through  the  burner  passages,  and 
to  allow  of  its  issuing  from  the  burner  tip  as  a  fine  spray  through 
the  action  of  the  centrifugal  force  imparted  to  it  during  its  pas- 
sage through  the  burner. 


130 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 


Heaters. 

Th,e  desired  temperature  varies  with  different  oils  and  de- 
pends on  the  relation  its  viscosity  bears  to  its  specific  volume. 
As  the  different  crude  oils  vary  in  density,  the  temperature  and 
pressure  can  only  be  determined  by  actual  burning  of  the  oil 
under  the  varying  conditions. 

The  steam  used  for  heating  purposes  is  generally  the  exhaust 
steam  from  fuel  pumps  or  live  steam  direct  from  boiler.  The 
drains  for  the  steam  condensed  in  the  heaters  lead  to  an  inspec- 
tion tank. 

The  inspection  tanks  are  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  any 
leakage  of  oil  from  the  coils  which  might  ultimately  get  into 
the  boiler  feed  water. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  131 

STRAINERS 

The  fuel  oil  delivered  from  the  oil  wells  holds  in  suspension 
fine  particles  of  sand  and  grit.  This  is  caught  in  the  strainer 
baskets  provided  for  that  purpose  in  the  line  of  flow  between  the 
tank  and  the  burner. 


Strainers. 


Usually  two  sets  of  duplex  strainers  are  fitted.  One  set  known 
as  suction  strainers  are  fitted  in  the  suction  line  between  the 
tank  and  the  fuel  service  pump,  and  the  other  set,  known  as  the 
discharge  strainer,  is  fitted  in  the  discharge  line  beyond  the 
heater.  These  strainers  are  made  duplex  so  that  one  strainer 
basket  may  be  cleaned  while  the  other  is  in  service.  The  covers 
are  made  so  as  to  be  readily  detached. 


132  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL, 

PRECAUTION    AGAINST    DANGER 

The  time  has  long  passed  when  the  use  of  oil  fuel  on  ship- 
board was  opposed  on  account  of  supposed  insurmountable  dan- 
gers. Oil  has  the  distinct  advantage  over  coal  that  it  is  not 
subject  to  spontaneous  combustion,  and  many  fires  which  have 
occurred  in  ship's  bunkers  at  sea  would  not  have  been  possible 
with  oil  for  fuel. 

Certain  precautions,  however,  must  be  taken,  such  as  suitable 
arrangements  of  vent  pipes,  protection  of  bulkheads  if  exposed 
to  heat,  and  particularly  the  use  of  an  oil  with  a  reasonably  high 
flash  point.  The  flash .  point  of  oil  is  the  temperature  at  which 
inflammable  gas  or  vapor  is  given  off. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  oil  is  perfectly  safe  on  board 
ship  if  the  flash  point  is  sufficiently  above  the  temperature  to 
which  the  oil  may  be  exposed  to  prevent  ignition  or  explosion. 
No  trouble  has  been  experienced  in  the  safe  storage  and  use  of 
oil  having  a  flash  point  of  150°  F  and  upwards. 

The  firing  or  burning  point  is  usually  about  50°  F  above  the 
flash  point. 

By  giving  careful  attention  to  ventilation  of  the  tanks  and 
leading  the  vent  pipes  well  away  from  all  possible  chance  of  ex- 
posure to  flame,  immunity  from  danger  will  be  secured. 

The  burning  point  is  the  temperature  at  which  sufficient  vapor 
is  given  off  to  remain  ignited. 

Steam  smothering  pipes  which  are  usually  installed  provide 
fairly  effective  means  of  extinguishing  possible  fires. 

Other  precautions  are  the  fitting  of  pans  under  the  furnace 
fronts  of  boilers  to  catch  drippings  of  oil  from  the  burners  if  they 
are  to  be  removed  for  cleaning  or  renewal,  and  having  a  box  filled 
with  sand  close  at  hand,  ready  to  extinguish  fires. 

These  precautions  will  probably  prevent  fires;  but  even  then 
"eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  safety". 


DANGER    OF    EXPLOSIONS 

The  possible  danger  due  to  heating  oil  above  the  flash  point, 
has  been  referred  to,  but  there  is  always  the  chance  that  some 
careless  or  ignorant  fireman  may  try  to  light  a  burner  which  has 
been  atomizing  oil  and  injecting  it  in  the  form  of  a  spray  into 
the  furnace  for  some  time  previous  to  applying  the  torch.  In  this 
case  it  is  quite  possible  that  an  explosion  in  the  boiler  furnace 
may  occur,  and  for  this  reason,  some  engineers  object  to  having 
dampers  installed  in  the  uptakes. 

If  the  simple  precaution  is  taken  of  always  placing  a  lighted 
torch  under  the  burner  before  turning  on  the  oil,  no  possible 
danger  of  explosion  in  the  furnace  can  exist. 

Special  precautions  must  be  taken  to  prevent  and  to  detect 
leakage  from  the  tanks  and  to  keep  all  naked  lamps,  fire,  etc.,  at 
a  safe  distance. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


133 


BOILER  ROOM  AUXILIARIES. 

FEED    PUMPS,    ETC. 

The  type  of  pump  commonly  used  for  feed  pump  purposes 
is  shown  in  section  on  page  136  with  parts  numbered  and  is  known 
as  a  "Simplex  or  single  piston." 

The  pump  is  preferably  placed  on  a  level  lower  than  its  source 
of  feed  thereby  keeping  its  cylinder  full  of  water  (or  primed)  at 
all  times  in  order  that  any  thrust  of  the  piston  rod  will  force 
water  into  the  boiler. 

The  "Vertical  Duplex"  or  double  piston  pump  shown  on  page 
134  is  also  used  in  many  cases  for  feed  pump  purposes  and  the 
same  type,  with  reversed  areas  of  steam  and  water  pistons,  for 
bilge  or  other  pump  work. 

The  term  duplex  means  that  the  pistons  operate  alternately 
and  the  piston  rod  of  each  pump  operates  the  valves  of  the  other. 


RELIEF    VALVE. 

As  shown  in  cut  this  valve  is  generally  made  with  an  iron 
body  containing  a  seat  covered  by  a  disc  which  is  pressed  upon 
by  a  phosphor  bronze  spring.  This  spring  is  adjusted  by  the  set- 
screw,  shown  at  top,  to  maintain  a  pressure  upon  the  lower  seat 
slightly  in  excess  of  pressure  normally  created  by  pump. 

When  the  pressure  becomes  greater  in  pipe  line  than  that  for 
which  spring  has  been  set,  the  valve  operates  by  compression  of 
the  spring,  thus  relieving  the  excess  pressure. 


134 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 


Type  of  Vertical  Duplex  Pump  Commonly  Used. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


135 


LIST  OF  PARTS 

OF 

VERTICAL  DUPLEX  PUMP. 


NO. 

NAME  or  PARTS. 

No. 

NAME  OF  PARTS. 

I 

Steam  Cylinder. 

31 

Taper  Pin. 

2 

Steam  Chest  Lining. 

32 

Tappet. 

3 

Steam  Piston. 

33 

Tappet  Pin. 

4 

Rings. 

34 

Sleeve. 

5 

Valve  Rod  Stuffing  Bo*r 

35 

Crosshead. 

6 

Gland. 

36 

Tie  Rods. 

7 

Piston  Valve. 

37 

Tie  Rods  Nut. 

8 

Follower. 

38 

Steam  Piston  Rod. 

9 

^nner  Ring. 

39 

Steam  Piston  Rod  Nut. 

10' 

Outer  Ring. 

40 

Pump  Piston  Rod. 

11 
12 

Steam  Cylinder  Stuffing  Box. 
Gland. 

41 
42 

Pump  Piston  Rod  Nut. 
Pump  Piston  Rod  Lock  Nut. 

13 

Upper  Steam  Head. 

43 

Pump  Cylinder. 

14 

Cushion  Valve  Box. 

44 

Lining. 

15 

Cap. 

45 

Upper  Pump  Head. 

16 

Stem. 

46 

Gland. 

17 

Handwheel. 

47 

Pump  Valves. 

18 

Tie  Piece  Pedestal. 

48 

Valve  Seat. 

19 

Long  Lever. 

49 

Valve  Cover. 

20 

Short  Lever. 

50 

Cover  Plate. 

21 

Long  Crank  and  Shaft. 

51 

Spring. 

22 

Short  Crank  and  Shaft. 

52 

Pump  Base. 

23 

Valve  Rod. 

53 

Pump  Piston. 

24 

Tail  Rod. 

54 

Follower. 

25 

Short  Connections. 

55 

Ring. 

26 
27 

Long  Connections. 
Nut. 

56 

57 

Follower  Studs. 
Follower  Stud  Nuts. 

28 

Check  Nut. 

58 

Gland  Studs  (Steam  Cyl.  Stuff.  Box). 

29 

Knuckle. 

59 

Gland  Studs  (Upper  Pump  Head). 

30 

Knuckle  Pin., 

60 

Crosshead  Studs. 

FEED   WATER    HEATER. 


In  'order  to  avoid  loss  of  steam  pressure  which  would  be  caused 
if  cold  water  was  injected  or  pumped  into  the  boiler,  an  appliance 
is  used  which  is  called  the  feed  water  heater. 

The  cold  water  is  fed  into  this  heater  and  steam,  (usually  ex- 
haust), is  forced  through  it  until  the  water  has  almost  reached 
212  degrees  Fahrenheit,  which  is  the  boiling  point.  This  water  is 
then  supplied  to  the  boiler  either  by  the  injector  or  feed  pump. 


136 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


« 

H 


3 
Q. 

a 
E 


!?•»  z  i  - 1 

0 

lilg^MfiSgB 

B4»   k    »O,coOQ«ft<> 

5S8g  SSS88SS383 


hin 


D 

X 

c 
o 

s 

E 


a 
E 

3 
Q. 


0) 

c 

3 

£ 

o  ^ 

0) 

a 


«  ^"S  ><.  S  S  S 

Sq^fl?^ 

W«S3ooc 


tt 


il* 

111 

_ESSo3 


|&;S<>< 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL, 


137 


CIRCULATING  PUMP. 

Centrifugal  Type. 


CIRCULATING    PUMP. 

The  purpose  of  the  circulating  pump  is  to  draw  from  overboard, 
the  water  used  in  the  condenser,  force  it  through  the  condenser 
tubes  and  return  it  overboard  again. 

The  diagram  shown  is  what  is  known  as  the  "centrifugal" 
pump  and  is  the  style  generally  used  for  this  purpose.  The  inflow 
(or  suction)  pipe  passes  up,  turns  with  an  elbow  and  enters  the 
case  where  the  black  circle  is  shown  in  the  center  of  the  radiating 
fans  of  the  centrifugal. 

The  pump  in  operation  with  its  rapidly  revolving  shaft  and 
attached  blades  thrusts  the  water  up  through  the  "discharge"  pipe 
and  on  to  the  condenser.  This  type  of  pump  will  deliver  large 
quantities  of  water  if  the  "head"  or  resistance  is  not  great. 


138 


THE   MERCHANT   MARINE   MANUAL 


CONDENSERS. 

Condensers  are  used  to  convert  exhaust  steam  back  again  into 
water  to  be  again  used  for  feed  water  purposes. 

The  type  shown  is  what  is  known  as  a  "surface  condenser" 
consisting  of  a  cylindrical  water-tight  tank  with  a  middle  chamber 
and  two  separate  end  chambers.  A  system  of  small  tubes  extends 
from  one  end  chamber  to  the  other  and  when  sea-water  is  pumped 
into  one  end  it  passes  through  the  tubes  to  the  other  end  and  then 
returns  through  the  tubing  system  and  is  discharged  overboard. 


Marine  Snginttriny 


AIM  PUMP  SUCTION 


SURFACE  CONDENSER. 
Longitudinal  Section. 


The  exhaust  steam  enters  at  the  top"  of  the  middle  chamber, 
sprays  over  the  tubes  and  again  becomes  water  for  further  use. 
The  smaller  the  diameter  of  the  tubes  and  the  greater  their  num- 
ber, the  more  rapid  the  operation  of  the  condenser. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


139 


AIR  PUMP  AUCTION 

SURFACE  CONDENSER. 
Cross  Section,  Showing  Tubes. 


AIR    PUMP. 

The  Air  Pump  is  designed  to  remove  from  the  condenser  the 
water  formed  from  exhaust  steam  and  also  such  air  as  may  have 
formed  in  the  system  and  been  passed  along  to  the  condenser. 

The  air  pump  takes  its  feed  from  the  bottom  of  the  condenser 
and  when  the  plunger  of  the  pump  is  lowered  the  cylinder  fills 
through  the  valves  in  the  bottom  of  the  plunger.  When  the  plung- 
er is  raised  the  air  and  water  together  are  raised  to  the  top  of  the 
pump  whence  the  air  passes  off  and  the  water  is  passed  to  the  hot 
well  and  returned  to  the  boiler  by  the  feed  pump. 

Air  pumps  are  sometimes  operated  directly  by  attachment  to 
the  main  engine  shaft  but  the  type  shown,  which  is  generally 
used,  is  known  as  the  "Vertical  Single  Acting  Twin  Beam"  and  is 
not  so  attached. 


140 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


DIAGRAM  OF  PARTS  FOR  VERTICAL  SINGLE  ACTING 
TWIN  BEAM  AIR  PUMPS 


THE     MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


141 


LIST  OF  PARTS  FOR  VERTICAL  SINGLE  ACTING  TWIN 
BEAM  AIR  PUMPS. 


No.  _  Name  of  Part 

1  Steam  Cylinder. 

2  Upper  Ste'am  Cylinder  Head. 

3  Entablature. 

4  Steam  Piston  Rod  Stuffing 'Box. 

5  St.  Pist  Rod  Box  Throat  Bushing. 

6  Steam  PTston-Rod  Gland. 

7  St.  Pist  Rod  Gland-gtud  and  Nut. 

8  Steam  Chest. 

9  Steam  Chest  Back- Bonnet. 

10  Steam  Chest  Lining. 

11  Steam  Chest  Piston  Valve. 

12  Piston  Valve  Ring,  outer. 

13  Piston  Valve  Ring,  inner. 

14  Piston  Valve  Follower. 

15  Piston  Valve  Bolt,  Complete. 

16  Steam  Chest  Front  Bonnet. 

17  Exhaust  Throttle  Valve  Complete. 

18  Auxiliary  Steam'  Chest. 

19  Valve  Rod  Box  Throat  Bushing. 

20  Valve  Rod  Gland. 

21  Valve  Rod  Gland  Stud  and  Nut. 

22  Auxiliary  Steam  Chest  Slide  Valve. 

23  Valve  Rod  Nut. 

24  Valve  Rod  Nut  Taper  Pin. 

25  Steam  Piston. 

26  Steam  Piston  Follower. 

27  Steam  Piston  Follower  Bolt. 

28  Steam  Piston  Ring,  outer.- 

29  Steam  Piston  Ring,  inner. 

30  Steam  Piston  Set-Out  Bolt. 

31  Steam  Piston  Set-Out  Check  Nut. 

32  Steam  Piston  Spring. 

33  Steam-Piston  Rod. 

34  Pump  Piston  Rod. 

35  Valve  Rod. 

36  Bell  Crank  Lever. 

37  Bell  Crank  Lever  Pin  Complete. 

38  Valve -Rod  Link. 

39  Valve  Rod  Link  Tappet. 

40  Valve  Rod  Split  Nut. 

41  Valve  Rod  Collar. 

42  Valve  Rod  Collar  Set  Screw. 

43  Driving  Crank. 

44  Driving  Crank  Pin  Complete. 

45  Beam  Shaft. 


No.  Name  of  Part 

46  Beam  Pedestal. 

47  Beam  Pedestal  Cap. 

48  Beam  Slab. 

49  Beam  Slab  Key." 

50  Beam  Slab  Distance  Piece. 

51  Upper  Supporting  Rod. 

52  Lower  Supporting  Rod. 

53  Upper  Supporting  Flange. 

54  Lower  Supporting  Flange. 

55  Crosshead. 

56  Crosshead  Slide. 

57  Crosshead  Slide  Cap. 

58  Crosshead  Wedge,  Steam  End. 

59  Crosshead  Wedge,  Pump  End- 

60  Crosshead  Guide. 

61  Crosshead  Guide  Bracket. 

62  Beam  Link. 

63  Beam  Link,  Upper  Box. 

64  Beam  Link,  Lower  Box. 

65  Beam  Link  Bearing  Pin  Complete. 

66  Pump  Cylinder,  Left  Hand. 

67  Pump  Cylinder,  Right  Hand;! 

68  Pump  Cylinder  Lining. 

69  Upper  Pump  Cylinder  Head. 

70  Pump  Piston  Rod  Gland. 

71  Pump  Piston  Rod  Gland  Stud  and 

Nut, 

72  Upper  Pump  Cylinder  Head 

Handhole  Plate. 

73  Head  Valve  Plate. 

74  Foot  Valve  Plate. 

75  H ead  Valve  Plate  Holding' Bol<  „ 

76  Head  Valve  Plate  Bolt  Cap  Nut. 

77  Pump  Valve  Disc. 

78  Pump. Valve  Seat. 

79  Pump  Valve  Bolt. 

80  Pump  Valve  Spring  Guard. 

81  Pump  Valve  Spring  Guard  Nut. 

82  Pump  Valve  'Spring. 

83  Pump  Bucket. 

84  Pump  Cylinder  Lining  Stud. 

85  fcump  Cylinder  Handhole  Plug. 

86  Pump  Cyl.  Handhole  Guard  Ring. 

87  Tie  Rod  (No.  not  shown  in 

diagram). 


142 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


EVAPORATOR. 

The  evaporator  is  designed  to  supply  fresh  water  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  make  up  the  loss  of  feed  water  by  leakage  of  steam, 
etc.,  or  when  steam  is  used  for  other  purposes  and  the  exhaust  is 
not  returned  through  the  feed.  This  loss  often  amounts  to  more 
than  five  per  cent,  but  must  be  made  up  and  this  is  done  by  the 
use  of  sea  water. 

A  modern  evaporator  such  as  is  here  shown  consists  of  coils 
of  pipe  enclosed  within  a  case  or  chamber. 


CROSS  SECTION  Of  EVAPORATOR  COlt 


interior  Arrangement  of  Evaporator.  Showing  Tube  Coils. 

The  sea  water  enters  the  chamber  and  the  steam  passing 
through  the  pipe  coil  heats  the  water  to  the  vapor  point.  This  va- 
por then  passes  on  to  the  condenser  after  having  (in  the  case  ot 
salt  water)  left  the  salt  in  the  evaporator  and  becomes  part 

fefedEvaporatoretubes  become  crusted  with  deposit  on  the  outside 
and  may  be  readily  removed  for  cleaning  from  time  to  time. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


MARINE  ENGINES  FOR  MERCHANT  SERVICE. 


RECIPROCATING    ENGINE. 


There  are  several  types  of  Marine  engines  generally  used 
aboard  Merchant  Steamers,  the  most  important  of  which  is  proba- 
bly what  is  known  as  the  "Reciprocating"  engine. 


Longitudinal  Section,  Compound  Marine  Engine. 


144 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


A 

£ 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 145 

NAMES  OF  PARTS 

INDICATED  BY  NUMBERS  ON  DIAGRAMS  OF 
RECIPROCATING  ENGINES,  Pages  143-144. 


1.  H.  P.  Valve  Chest    Cover    (top). 

2.  H.  P.  Valve  Chest. 

3.  H.  P.  Piston  Valve. 

4.  Valve   Stem. 

5.  H.  P.  Valve  Chest    Cover    (Bottom). 

6.  Valve  Stem  Stuffing   Box   &    Gland. 

7.  Valve  Stem  Bracket    &    Guide. 

8.  Link  Block. 

9.  Links. 

10.  Drag   Links   or   Bridle    Rods. 

11.  Eccentric  Rods. 

12.  Eccentric  Straps. 

13.  Eccentrics   or   Sheaves. 

14.  H.  P.  Cylinder  Relief    Valves. 

15.  H.  P.  Cylinder  Cover. 

16.  Piston   Rod   Nut. 

17.  Steam    Ports. 

18.  H.  P.  Piston    (consisting   of   Follower,    Bolts,    Bull   Ring   & 

Packing    Rings). 

19.  H.    P.    Cylinder. 

20.  H.  P.  Piston  Rod. 

21.  H.  P.  Piston  Rod    Stuffing    Box. 

22.  H.  P.   Piston  Rod  Gland. 

23.  Crosshead. 

24.  Crosshead   Brasses. 

25.  Guides    (in  which   Crosshead   Slippers  Run). 

26.  Connecting    Rods. 

27.  Crankpin   Brasses. 

28.  Crankpin. 

29.  Crank  Webs. 

30.  Main  Bearing  Caps. 

31.  Main  Bearings. 

32.  Cylinder  Columns. 

33.  L.  P.  Cylinder  Relief    Valves. 

34.  L.  P.  Cylinder  Cover. 

35.  L.  P.  Cylinder. 

36.  L.  P.  Piston    (consisting   of   Follower,    Bolts,    Bull   Ring   & 

Packing    Rings). 

37.  L.  P.  Piston  Rod. 

38.  L.  P.  Piston  Rod  Stuffing    Box. 

39.  L.  P.  Piston  Rod  Gland. 

40.  L.  P.  Balance  Piston   Cover. 

41.  L.  P.  Balance  Piston  Cylinder. 

42.  L.  P.  Balance  Piston. 

43.  L.  P.  Double  Ported   Slide  Valve. 

44.  L.  P.  Valve  Chest. 

45.  L.  P.  Valve  Chest  Cover. 

46.  Shaft  Coupling 

47.  Column    Tie   Rod. 

48.  Engine  Bed. 

49.  Air  Pump  Lever. 


146  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

Reciprocating  Engines  are  of  several  classes  which  are  in- 
dividually known  as  "Compound"  the  term  applied  to  an  engine 
with  two  cylinders,  "Triple  Expansion"  if  of  three  cylinders, 
"Quadruple  Expansion"  if  of  four  cylinders,  and  all  the  classes 
mentioned  are  styled  in  general  "Multiple  Expansion"  on  account 
of  the  cylinders  through  which  the  steam  operates  being  two  or 
more  in  number. 

The  illustration  on  page  143  is  a  longitudinal  section  view  of 
what  is  known  as  a  compound  engine  of  the  Merchant  Type,  the 
parts  being  numbered  for  identification  by  the  description  given 
in  the  table  shown  on  page  145. 

A  "Triple  Expansion"  engine  is  also  shown  in  longitudinal  sec- 
tion and  the  numbers  on  this  drawing  indicate  similar  parts  to  the 
numbers  shown  on  the  section  view  of  the  compound  engine. 

The  engine  shown  operates  in  an  upright  or  vertical  position 
and  the  thrust  of  the  piston  also  is  vertical,  the  reverse  of  old  type 
engines,  therefore  this  type  is  designated  as  vertical,  Inverted, 
direct  acting,  multiple  expansion,  condensing  engine. 

In  the  modern  engine  the  exhaust  steam  passes  into  a  con- 
denser thus  giving  the  advantage  of  increased  ratio  of  expansion 
and  decreased  back  pressure.  This  explains  the  term  condensing. 

The  motion  of  this  engine  is  carried  through  the  piston,  piston 
rod,  crosshead,  connecting  rod,  crank  pin  and  crank  shaft  and 
for  this  reason  the  term  direct  acting  is  used. 


TURBINE  MARINE  ENGINES. 


The  Turbine  or  "rotary"  engine  is  coming  into  more  general 
use  each  year  and  installations  are  being  made  from  time  to  time 
aboard  merchant  vessels.  The  latest  develppment  in  the  Turbine 
is  the  satisfactory  equipment  of  the  engine  with  geared  drive 
direct  from  the  shaft.  Turbine  engines  are  of  two  general  types, 
the  "Low  Pressure"  and  the  "High  Pressure"  and  in  some  cases 
both  types  are  included  in  the  same  installation  with  cross-con- 
nections permitting  the  use  of  either  engine  as  desired. 

The  general  principle  on  which  the  turbine  operates  is  by  rig- 
idly -mounting  a  system  of  blades,  end  on,  to  the  circumference  of 
the  shaft  of  the  engine,  enclosing  the  shaft  and  blades  within  a 
casing  to  which  steam  is  admitted,  striking  the  blades  and  '  im- 
pelling" or  pushing  the  blades  away  from  the  steam  pressure, 
thereby  causing  the  shaft  to  revolve.  Generally  speaking,  the  op- 
eration is  the  exact  reverse  of  the  ordinary  electric  fan  used  to 
make  air  currents  in  the  Summer  time. 

Manufacturers  of  Turbine  engines  claim  their  product 
superior  to  the  reciprocating  engine  on  account  of  being  easier  to 
handle,  requiring  less  space  to  install,  beiri%  more  immediately  re- 
sponsive to  applied  power  and  smoother  in  operation.  It  is  ad- 
mitted that  a  turbine  will  operate  at  high  speed  with  less  shock 
to  the  other  sections  of  the  unit  than  will  any  other  engine  de- 
veloping the  same  power. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  147 

Manufacturers  of  turbine  engines  claim  a  saving  of  about  one- 
third  in  dead  weight  of  machine,  over  the  ordinary  reciprocating 
engine. 

The  great  objection  made  to  turbine  engines  is  that  at  low 
speeds,  they  are  wasteful  of  steam. 


REDUCTION    GEARS. 

SHAFTS  OP  TURBINE  ENGINES  revolve  at  high  speed  and 
in  order  to  adapt  the  speed  to  the  slower  moving  propeller  shaft 
of  the  vessel,  use  is  made  of  what  are  called  Reduction  Gears 
which  are  simply  cog-wheels  of  different  sizes  which  engage  to- 
gether and  transmit  the  power  at  reduced  speed. 

With  the  turbine  shaft  revolving  at  3600  revolutions  per  min- 
ute the  first  reduction  gear  brings  this  down  to  450  revolutions 
per  minute  and  the  second  reduction  gear  brings  this  down  still 
further  to  70  revolutions  per  minute  which  is  about  the  normal 
speed  developed  by  the  shaft  of  a  "Parsons"  turbine.  The  gear 
wheels  are  made  of  cast-iron  with  a  steel  rim  or  casing  and  are 
mounted  on  a  heavy  forged  steel  shaft  and  operate  as  it  were  in 
an  oil  bath. 

The  features  mentioned,  together  with  the  condenser  and  cir- 
culating pumps  which  operate  along  similar  lines  to  those  that 
form  parts  of  other  steam  power  installations,  give  a  general  idea 
of  the  operation  of  a  turbine  steam  engine, 


GLANDS    AND    PACKING. 

THE  GLANDS  AND  PACKING  which  prevent  steam  leakage 
from  one  to  the  other  of  the  cylinders  or  chambers  of  the  engine 
are  very  important  parts  of  the  equipment  of  a  turbine  engine  and 
these  appliances  are  shown  in  considerable  detail  in  the  diagrams 
which  follow.  All  parts  of  the  engine  where  water  is  liable  to 
collect  are  equipped  with  drain  pipes  to  a  steam  ejector  which 
pumps  this  water  into  the  condenser. 

THE  SPEED  OP  THE  ENGINE  is  automatically  controlled 
by  what  is  called  the  "governor"  which  is  set  for  a  certain  speed 
and  should  this  speed  be  exceeded  the  governor  partially  closes 
the  steam  supply  and  reduces  the  speed  of  the  engine. 


LUBRICATION. 

Lubrication  of  gear  teeth  and  bearings  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  operation  of  the  turbine.  The  "Parsons"  is  fitted  with 
a  "gravity"  tank*  set  overhead  from  which  oil  flows  over  the  gears 
and  bearings,  wasting  into  a  tank  below  from  which  it  is  re- 
turned by  pumps  connected  to  the  shaft  of  the  engine,  filtered, 
cooled  and  returned  to  the  engine.  The  oil  supply  to  the  bearings 
enters  at  the  bottom  and  flows  to  the  top  and  thence  to  the  tank 
below. 


*Every   27   inches   in   elevation   of  tank   gives   one   pound   pres- 
sure. 


148 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE     MERCHANT     MA&INE     MANtfAL 


149 


150 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE*    MANUAL 


The  diagram  that  follows  gives  a  good  general  idea  of  the  ar- 
rangement and  location  of  all  the  appliances  and  connections 
placed  in  some  modern  vessels  built  for  and  used  in  the  oil  carry- 
ing trade. 


Thrott/e  Valvej          Automatic  Governor 
Ahead  and  Astern      Overspeed  Valve 

Plan  of  Engine  Room 
Showing  Location  and  Arrangement  of  Turbines,  etc. 


PLAN    OF    ENGINE     ROOM. 

The   turbines  here   shown  are  of  the    "Parsons"    combined   im- 
pulse reaction  cross-compound  type  and  ^fitted  with  both   "Ahead" 

The8  sectional   views    of    the    "Parsons"    high    pressure    turbine 
shown  on  the  two  preceding  pages  give  at  a  fiance  an  idea  of 
interior    arrangement    and    the    proportion    of    the    various    parts, 
many  of  which  are  identified  by  name. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  151 

DESCRIPTION  OF  GENERAL  ELECT&IC 
MARINE  GEARED  TURBINE. 


TURBINE. 

The  turbine  is  so  arranged  that  the  ahead  turbine  and  the  re- 
versing turbines  are  carried  on  the  one  shaft  and  in  the  same  cas- 
ing and  consists  of  five  stages  for  the  forward  turbine  and  two 
stages  for  the  reversing  unit.  The  maneuvering  is  done  by  hand 
and  is  interlocked  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  impossible  to  open 
the  valve  for  the  astern  turbine,  if  the  valve  for  the  forward  tur- 
bine is  not  closed,  or  vice  versa.  The  first  wheels  of  the  forward 
and  the  reversing  turbines  each  carry  a  double  row  of  buckets,  the 
remaining  wheels  carrying  a  single  row  of  blading. 

All  wheels  are  of  forged  steel  with  the  rims  machined  to  re- 
ceive the  buckets  which  have  a  dovetail  shaped  root  of  the  same 
shape  as  the  rirn. 

The  intermediate  segment  for  the  first  stage  forward  buckets 
is  bolted  to  the  first  stage  nozzle  and  the  turbine  head  and  the 
stationary  buckets  for  the  first  stage  reverse  are  dovetailed  into 
the  holder  which  is  cast  integral  with  the  second  stage  nozzle  dia- 
phragm, the  flange  of  which  is  bolted  to  the  turbine  shell. 

The  first  stage  forward  nozzle  segment  is  bolted  to  the  upper 
half  of  the  turbine  head.  The  first  stage  nozzle  ring  for  the  re- 
versing turbine  is  made  in  halves  and  bolted  to  the  turbine  shell, 
shoulders  being  turned  on  the  nozzle  which  fits  grooves  turned 
in  the  inner  flange  of  the  turbine  shell. 

The  second  stage,  forward  nozzle  ring  consists  of  four  flanged 
segments,  the  inner  flange  having  a  projection  which  rests  in  a 
ledge  turned  in  the  second  stage  nozzle  diaphragm;  the  outer  flange 
being  bolted  to  the  diaphragm. 

SPEED    REDUCING    GEAR. 

The  speed  reducing  gear  which  is  mounted  directly  abaft  the 
turbine  is  of  the  laminated  or  Alquist  flexible  disc  double  reduc- 
tion type,  provided  with  helically  cut  teeth  which  are  designed  to 
equalize  the  driving  pressure  over  the  active  driving  face  and  limit 
the  strain  imposed  at  any  one  point. 

The  shafts  of  the  pinions  and  gears  are  each  carried  by  bear- 
ings mounted  in  the  gear  casing,  which  is  split  horizontally  to 
provide  accessibility  to  the  enclosed  parts. 

The  teeth  of  the  pinions  are  cut  integral  with  their  shafts; 
the  high  speed  pinion  being  connected  to  the  turbine  by  a  flexible 
coupling. 

The  discs  of  the  flexible  gears  are  keyed  and  pressed  on  their 
shafts  in  two  sections  against  a  collar  which  separates  the  two. 
Studs  having  nuts  setting  in  counterbored  holes  pass  through  the 
discs  and  the  collars  and  prevent  axial  movement  at  these  points. 

In  handling,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  nothing  comes 
in  contact  with  the  teeth,  discs,  or  shafts,  which  might  in  any  way 
injure  them.  In  assembling,  the  gears  and  casings  should  be 
scrupulously  clean  and  free  from  all  lint,  dirt  and  grit.  Kerosene 
should  be  used  as  a  cleansing  medium  and  thoroughly  wiped  dry 
to  prevent  rusting.  The  bolts  in  the  flanges  of  casing  sections 
should  be  drawn  up  snug. 


162 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 153 

SECTION   THROUGH   TURBINE    AND    GEARS. 


1  Rail  for  2  halves  pinned  to  low  speed  gear  shaft. 

2.  Propeller  shaft  speed  counting  device. 

3.  Bearing  cap   6. 

4.  Oil  pressure  gauge. 

5.  Connection   for  oil  feed   to   bearing. 

6.  After   bearing — low   speed   gear   shaft. 

7.  After  gear  casing — upper. 

8.  Forward  bearing — low  speed  gear  shaft. 

9.  Bearing  cap  for  8  and  10. 

10.  After  bearing — high  speed  pinion  shaft. 

11.  Forward   gear   casing — upper. 

12.  Forward   bearing.     High   speed   pinion   shaft. 

13.  Bearing   cap   for   12. 

14.  Flexible  jaw  coupling  with  bolts   and   nuts. 

15.  Bearing  cap  for  17. 

16.  Steam  inlet — astern  turbine. 

17.  Turbine  bearing — exhaust  end. 

18.  Turbine  shaft. 

19.  Oil  and  air  deflectors. 

20.  Labyrinth  type  shaft  packing — after. 

21.  Intermediate  segment  and  nozzle  diaphragm  with   packing 

and  retaining  rings. 

22.  Cover  for  buckets — Quote   number  of  wheel. 

23.  Fourth   forward   nozzle  diaphragm   complete   with   packing 

and  retaining  rings. . 

24.  Turbine  shell — upper. 

25.  Third    forward    nozzle    diaphragm    complete    with    packing 

and  retaining  rings. 

26.  Second   forward   nozzle   diaphragm   complete   with   packing 

and  retaining  rings. 

27.  First   forward   nozzle   diaphragm   with   packing   rings. 

28.  First   stage   forward   wheel. 

29.  Bucket — Quote   number   of  wheel. 

30.  Intermediate   bucket   segment. 

31.  Nozzle — Quote  whether  for  forward  or  astern   turbine. 

32.  Steam  inlet — forward  turbine. 

33.  Turbine  head — upper. 

34.  Labyrinth   type   shaft   packing — forward. 

35.  Hand    valve    for    further    controlling    steam    to    first    stage 

nozzles. 

36.  Turbine  bearing — forward. 


154  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

37.  Cap  for  37  and  69. 

38.  Emergency  tripping  device. 

39.  Low   speed   gear   shaft. 

40.  Key  for  39  and  42. 

41.  Bolt  and  nuts  for  42  and  77. 

42.  Flanged  collar. 

43.  Oil  discharge  from  gear  casing. 

44.  Low  speed  pinion — port  or  starboard. 

45.  Sight  feed  lubricator  for  low  speed  pinion. 

46.  Oil  nozzle  or  distributor — port  or  starboard. 

47.  Gear  casing — lower. 

48.  Hierh  speed  gear — port. 

49.  Sleeve   for  48  and   79. 

50.  Key  for  51  and  79. 

51.  Shaft  for  49. 

52.  High  speed  pinion. 

53.  Turbine  shell — lower. 

54.  Connection    from    chamber    B    and    for    live    sealing    steam 

for   20. 

55.  Oil  supply  pipe  for  76. 

56.  First  stage  astern  wheel. 

57.  Second  stage  astern  wheel. 

58.  Sight  feed  lubricator  for  high  speed  pinion. 

59.  Flange  for  58. 

60.  Fifth  stage  forward  wheel. 

61.  Connection   for  pipe   leading  from   packing  chamber. 

62.  Fourth   stage  forward  wheel. 

63.  Spacing  sleeve — Quote  number  of  wheels. 

64.  Third  stage  forward  wheel. 

65.  Second  stage  forward  wheel. 

66.  Packing  sleeve — first  diaphragm. 

67.  First  stage  forward  wheel. 

68.  Packing  sleeve  for  18  and   34. 

69.  Turbine  head — lower  and  bearing  standard. 

70.  Turbine   thrust  bearing. 

71.  Emergency  governor. 

72.  Cover  with  studs  and  nuts  for  37  and  69. 

73.  High  speed  gear — starboard. 

74.  Sleeve   for   73   and   77. 

75.  Shaft  for  77. 

76.  Oil  nozzle  for  52. 

77.  Coupling — starboard. 

78.  Low  speed  gear. 

79.  Coupling — port. 

80.  Bolt  and  nuts  for  48  and  49. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


155 


Arrangement  of  Gears,  Shafts  and  Bearings 
General  Electric  Marine  Geared  Turbine. 


Fore  and  aft  location  of  the  gears  and  pinions  in  the  casing  is 
fixed  by  the  position  of  the  main  thrust  shaft. 

Clearances  must  be  maintained  by  the  adjustment  of  the  main 
thrust  bearing. 

Movement  of  the  main  thrust  can  be  detected  at  the  indicator 
"H."  on  the  low  speed  shaft.  The  arrows  indicate  direction  of 
rotation  when  going  forward. 

A — High  speed  pinion. 

B — Intermediate  speed  pinion. 

C — Low  speed  shaft. 

D — Stub  shaft. 


156 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


157 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    SHAFT     PACKINGS. 

To  take  care  of  steam  leakage  around  the  turbine  shaft  where 
it  passes  through  the  wheel  casing,  labyrinth  type  packings  are 
employed.  In  many  of  the  earlier  turbines  the  rotating  rings  were 
turned  on  the  shaft,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  but  in  later  de- 
signs the  revolving  rings  are  pressed  on  the  shaft  and  pinned 
to  prevent  their  displacement.  The  stationary  packing  rings  are 
in  halves  and  are  secured  to  the  turbine  head  and  the  shell  and 
have  a  radial  clearance  of  approximately  0.005  inch.  The  steam 
leakage  from  the  high  pressure  shaft  packing  is  used  to  seal  the 
low  pressure  packing.  Any  excess  steam  from  the  high  pressure 
packing  is  fed  into  the  fourth  stage  bowl  of  the  forward  turbine 
and  the  valve  in  the  pipe  from  Chamber  A  should  be  adjusted  to 
avoid  an  excessive  amount  of  steam  about  the  packing.  When 
starting  the  turbine,  and  while  running  at  low  speeds,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  admit  live  steam  to  seal  the  packings. 


Shaft  Packing  and  Steam  Seal  Piping. 

Impairment  of  the  vacuum  will  be  avoided  by  properly  sealing 
the  shaft  packings. 

A  change  in  speed  and  consequent  variation  in  the  load  and 
p.team  pressure,  demand  immediate  adjustment  of  the  valves  for 
the  steam  seal  in  order  to  maintain  efficient  operation  of  the  unit. 

INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    THE    CARE    AND    OPERATION    OF    THE 
GENERAL    ELECTRIC    MARINE    GEARED    TURBINE. 

The  following  instructions  are  necessarily  brief,  and  further 
information  may  be  had  upon  application  to  the  Ship  Propulsion 
Division  of  the  Turbine  Engineering  Department,  General  Electric 
Company,  Scheaeetady,  New  York.  . 


158  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

BEFORE    STARTING    THE    TURBINE. 

1.  All  oil  tanks  must  be  provided  with  pure,  clean  oil. 

2.  Examine  the  oil  strainers  for  foreign  substances. 

3.  The  steam  strainer  which  forms  a   part  of  the   emergency 
valve  must  be  cleaned  to  avoid  loss  in  initial  steam  pressure. 

4.  The  auxiliaries  must  be  placed  in  the  best  of  working  con- 
dition. 

STARTING    THE    TURBINE. 

1.  See  that  the  oil  pump  is  furnishing  an  ample  supply  of  good, 
clean  oil  to  the  various  bearings,   thrusts  and  gears. 

2.  Make   certain   that   the  oil  gauges   are   registering  properly. 

3.  See  that  the  maneuvering  valve  is  closed. 

4.  Open  the  drains  from  the  steam  pipe  and  valves  leading  to 
the  turbine. 

5.  Open   the  header  or  boiler   stop  valve   slowly,   to  allow   the 
pipe   to  heat  up  and   the   condensate   to   escape   through   the   drain 
pipes. 

6.  When    the    steam    pipe    is    hot    the    drain    valves    should    be 
closed. 

7.  Adjust   the   steam   supply   to   the   shaft   packings   by  means 
of  the  valves  furnished  therefor. 

8.  Note  if  the  main  condenser  and  auxiliaries  are  functioning 
properly. 

9.  Close  the  hand  valves  in  the  upper  half  of  the  turbine  head. 

10.  Make    certain   that   the    turbine   shell    is   at   all   times    free 
from  water  accumulations  to  avoid  a  loss  in  efficiency  and  damage 
to  the  rotating  parts. 

11.  Open  the  "ahead"  maneuvering  valve  to  allow  the  turbine 
to  start  revolving  and  to  warm  up. 

12.  Inspect    the    clearance    indicator    and    the    propeller    shaft 
speed  counting  device. 

13.  After   the   turbine   has   started   to   revolve,    trip    the    emer- 
gency valve  by  hand  several  times  to  make  sure  that  the  tripping 
devices  and  the  valves  are   in  working  order.     If  these   are   found 
to  work  satisfactorily  the  speed  may  be  brought  to  normal. 

14.  Make    any   needed    adjustments    to    the    oil    supply   to    the: 
bearings,   thrusts  and  gears. 

15.  Inspect  the  steam  and  vacuum  joints  for  leakage  and  re- 
adjust the  valves  in  the  steam  seal  to  the  shaft  packings. 

16.  Examine  the  "astern"  maneuvering  valve,  also  the  guard- 
ing valve  which   is  placed   between   the   astern  maneuvering  valve 
and   the  steam   inlet  for  the  astern   turbine,   to  make   certain   thai 
they  are  closed  tightly  when  not  in  use. 

TO   DISASSEMBLE   THE   TURBINE. 

The  head,  shell  and  diaphragms  are  split  horizontally  to  allow 
easy  removal  of  the  diaphragms,  wheels,  packings  and  shaft. 

1.  Make  certain  that  all  bolts  and  nuts  are  disengaged  in  the 
parts  to  be  removed  before  lifting. 

2.  Do  not  attempt  to  lift  the  upper  half  of  the   turbine   shell 
without  having  the  guide  pins  properly  placed  and  made  tight. 

3.  Use    care    in    handling    to    prevent    damage    to    the    various 
parts,    especially    the    teeth    of    the    shaft    packings,    buckets,    dia- 
phragms,  shafts  and  bearings. 

4.  Avoid    damage    to    all    steam    joint    surfaces    thereby    pre- 
venting the  forming  of  burrs  and  ridgesT 

BEARINGS. 

1.  The  bearing  clearances  must  not  at  any  time  exceed  0.002 
inch,  per  inch  diameter  of  the  journal.  As  this  maximum  clear- 
ance is  approached  the  bearings  should  be  re-babbitted.  In  as- 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  159 

certaining  the  clearances,  the  actual  diameters  of  the  journals 
should  be  obtained  rather  than  using  the  dimensions  given  on  the 
drawings. 

2.  In  re-babbitting  the  bearings  allow  0.001  inch  per  diametri- 
cal inch  of  the  journal,  e.  g.,  when  re-boring  a  bearing  with  a  jour- 
nal  diameter    of   eight    inches,    the    bearing    should    be    bored   and 
carefully  scraped  to  a  diameter  of  8.008  inches. 

3.  A  re -babbitting  diagram  blue  print  for  the  turbine  and  the 
gear  bearings  is  furnished  with  each  installation,  and  in  re-babbit- 
ting,   groove   the   bearings   exactly  as   shown   and    in   scraping   the 
babbitt  avoid  the  forming  of  ridges. 

4.  Avoid   damage  to  the  bearing  surfaces  of  the  thrust  rings 
and  journals.     Use   only   the   smoothest   oil   stone   and   kerosene   if 
attempting  to  restore  the  polished  surfaces. 

5.  Before  reassembling  the  bearings,   carefully  wipe   away  all 
grit,  scrapings,  lint,  waste,  or  other  foreign  matter  liable  to  dam- 
age the  bearings  or  to  stop  the  oil  circulation. 

6.  The  bearings  for  supporting  the   flexible   coupling   must  be 
set  to  give  the  most  accurate  possible   alignment  as   to  centering 

s  and  direction  while  running.  The  turbine  rotor  and  the  high-speed 
pinion  shaft  are  initially  assembled  in  exact  alignment  and  must 
be  so  maintained.  f 

7.  The  jaw   bearing   strips   of  the  flexible   jaw   coupling   must 
be  kept  tight  by  the  securing  screws  and   ample   lubrication  pro- 
vided to  the  bearing  surfaces  to  prevent  excessive  wear  and  clear- 
ance.    Should  it  become  necessary  to  renew  the  bearing  strips,  use 
a  good  tough  quality  of  bronze  or  bearing  metal  such  as  is  used 
in  the  making  of  engine  brasses. 

8.  The    gears    and    the    turbine    are    carefully    balanced    before 
shipment  from  the  factory,  and  to  avoid  undue  wear  on  the  bear- 
ings the  rotors  as  well  as  the  propeller  of  the  ship  should  be  kept 
in  as  good  a  balance  as  possible. 

9.  Do  not  unmesh  the  gears  when   renewing   the  bearings,   as 
the  lower  halves  can  be  revolved  out  of  position  by  slightly  raising 
the  shafts. 

10.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  turbine  or  gear  bear- 
ings be  machined  at  the  joints'.     When  the  clearance  is  excessive 
the  shells  should  be  re-babbitted. 

SEATINGS. 

1.  The   seatings  for  the  gear  casing  and   the   propeller  thrust 
casing  should  be  tied  together  and  independent  fore  and  aft  move- 
ments absolutely  prevented. 

2.  Where  the  casings  have  to  be  drilled  and  tapped,  use  care 
not  to  drill  through  the  casings  and  into  the  oil  chamber. 

3.  Should  any  unusual  condition  arise,  such  as  a  collision,  that 
would    tend    to   alter    the    original    setting,    the    seatings    should    be 
carefully   examined    and    the   alignment   checked    to    avoid    damage 
to  the  gears,  shafts,  packings,  wheels,  etc. 

4.  From  time  to  time  the  operating  engineer  should  examine  all 
bolts  and  nuts  to  make  sure  that  they  have  not  worked  loose  owing 
to  the  working  of  the  ship  or  to  temperature  changes. 

CAUTION. 

TO  AVOID  POSSIBILITIES  OF  EXPLOSIONS,  FLAMING 
LIGHTS  SHOULD  BE  KEPT  AWAY  FROM  THE  GEAR  CASE 
OPENINGS  WHILE  THE  OIL  IS  HOT  AND  VAPOROUS. 


160  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

LUBRICATION. 


THE   OIL   MUST   BE   KEPT   CLEAN. 

1.  Maintain  a  reserve  supply  of  oil  for  emergencies. 

2.  Use  a  pure  mineral,  hydro-carbon  oil,  having  a  viscosity  of 
approximately   260   seconds  at   100   deg.    F.     (Saybolt   viscosimeter). 
Avoid  oils  containing  acids,  thickeners  and  tarry,   slimy  or  saponi- 
fiable  matter. 

3.  The   oil   must   not   readily  form   an   emulsion   when   in   con- 
tact with  water. 

4.  Maintain  a  line  pressure  of  from  12  to  15  Ib.   gauge  on  the 
oil  supply  pipes  to  the  gears  and  bearings.     Make  certain  that  the 
pressure  gauges   are   registering   properly  and   that  ample   lubrica- 
tion is  being  supplied. 

5.  All  pressure  gauges  should  be  throttled  sufficiently  to  reduce 
needle  vibration  and  consequent  wear  on   the   internal  mechanism. 

6.  Be  sure  that  the  oil  nozzles  are  properly  adjusted  to  allow 
the  required  flow  of  oil. 

7.  The  oil  tank  level  alarm  gauges  must  be  kept  in  good  work- 
ing order. 

8.  Do   not   allow   salt   or  other  water   to  mix   with   the   oil. 

9.  Test  the   oil  cooler  periodically  for  water  leaks. 

10.  Do  not  allow  sediment  to  collect  in  the  oil  pipes,  gear  cas- 
ings, or  drain  tanks. 

11.  Take  a  sample  of  oil  from  the  return  pipe  once  a  week  to 
determine   the   amount  of  water  and   sediment  carried   in   suspen- 
sion. 

12.  The    oil    supply   pipes   to   the    pumps    should    be    connected 
several  inches  above  the   bottom   of  the  drain  tank  so  as  to  draw 
only  clean  oil.     The  oil  pump  must  be  installed  with  the  oil  cylin- 
ders below  the  level  of  the  oil  in  the  tanks  and  the  supply  should 
be   continuous.     Air   pockets   in    the    oil    feed    will    cause    an    inter- 
mittent flow  of  oil  and  injury  to  thrusts,  gears,  and  bearings. 

13.  Do  not  allow  the  oil  pump  to  "race." 

14.  A  stop  cock  or  other  device  must  be  provided  at  the  low- 
est point  in  the  tank  to  drain  away  any  accumulation  of  water. 

15.  All   oil   tanks   should   be   provided   with   suitable   clean-outs 
for  removing  sediment  and  other  foreign  matter.     Clean  regularly. 
The  oil  pumps,   coolers,    strainers,   and  niters   must   be  maintained 
in  an  efficient  condition  of  operation  to  supply  good,   clean  oil.     A 
steady   increase    in   the   oil   temperature,    with   a   normal    operating 
condition  of  the  auxiliaries,    indicates  oil  fatigue  and  make-up  oil 
should  be  immediately  added,  all  foreign  matter  removed  from  the 
tanks  and  the  used  oil  filtered. 

16.  The  working  oil  temperature   should   approximate   160   deg. 
P.     Should    there    be    a    tendency    to    greatly    exceed    this,    due    to 
operation    in   the   tropics,    the   depth    of   the   grooves    in    the    upper 
halves  of  the  turbine   bearing  can   be   increased   to   allow   a   larger 
oil  flow  and  greater  cooling  effect. 

17.  The    low-L-peed    gear    must    not    dip    in    oil    due    to    the    oil 
being  allowed  to  back  up  in  the  gear  casing,   because  the   friction 
thus  established  will  cause  not  only  undue  heating  of  the  oil  and 
casing,  but  a  great  loss  of  power. 

,  18.  Any  foreign  matter  in  the  oil  carries  with  it  a  certain  por- 
tion of  hard  particles.  This  grit  carried-  in  suspension  in  the  oil 
acts  as  an  abrasive  and  will  result  in  the  rapid  deterioration  and 
reduced  life  of  the  gears. 

19.  Do  not  use  waste  or  other  linty  ^substances  on  oil  covered 
surfaces.  Use  wiping  cloths  and,  to  avoid  accident,  wipe  only 
when  the  apparatus  is  not  running.  Use  Kerosene  only.  Do  not 
use  gasoline. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


161 


162  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

FOR  EMERGENCY  REPAIRS  AT  SEA. 
In   General. 

1.  The  oil  should  be  drained  from  the  gear  casing-  and,  if  nec- 
essary, pumped  from  the  drain  to  the  settling  tanks. 

2.  Break  all  joints  in  the  oil  supply  pipes  and  cover  the  ends 
of  the  pipes  with  canvas  to  exclude  dirt 

3.  Assemble  the  propeller  clamp  and  lock  the  shaft  tight. 

4.  Remove  all  bolts  and  nuts  from  the  gear  casing  joint  flanges. 

5.  Remove  and  place  the  upper  half  of  the  casings  on  the  en- 
gine room  floor. 

6.  Remove  the  oil  nozzles  where  necessary. 

7.  Before  unmeshing  the  low-speed  pinion  and  the  high-speed 
gear,   and  to  avoid  loss  of  time  incident  to  obtaining  the  mesh  of 
the  teeth  as  originally  made,   mark  the  teeth   clearly  so  that  they 
can  be  properly  reassembled. 

8.  After  meshing   the   gears,    all   teeth    in    the    entire    train   of 
wheels  and  pinions  should  be  bearing  in  the  direction  that  the  pro- 
peller turns.     To  secure  this  condition  it  may  be  necessary  to  clamp 
down    any    bearings    which    may    lift    and    apply    a    torque    to    the 
pinion   shaft   by  means   of   the    hand-turning   device   assembled   on 
the  forward  end  of  the  turbine  shaft. 

9.  The  back-lash  should  be  ascertained  and  the  driving  faces  of 
the  teeth  carefully  examined  to  make  certain  that  they  are  in  proper 
contact  and   that   the   drive   on   both   the   starboard   and   port   side 
gears    are    equalized.     Before    closing    up    the    casings,    remove    all 
dirt  and  lint  from  the  interior  surfaces  with  clean  wiping  cloths. 

10.  Assemble    the    gear    casing    covers    and    replace    the    body 
bound  bolts  and  dowels  in  the  holes  corresponding  to  the  numbers 
stamped  on  these  parts. 

TO    REPLACE    A    HIGH-SPEED    PINION— ONE-PLANE    TYPE. 

1.  Remove    the    upper   halves    of   the   bearings    from    the    low- 
speed  pinion  shaft. 

2.  Secure    the   pinion    and    gear   by   tackle,    placing   the    slings 
between   the   helixes   of  the  pinion   and   gear. 

3.  Revolve   the  lower  half  of  each   bearing  about   90   deg.   and 
insert  a  bolt  to   hold   the   bearing  joint   in   a   vertical  position   and 
draw  the  pinion  and  gear  away  from  the  low-speed  gear  and  high- 
speed pinion  until  the  teeth  are  out  of  mesh. 

4.  Rest  the  pinion  and  gear  on  wooden  blockings   in  the  cas- 
ing and  avoid  damage  to  the  teeth. 

5.  In  removing  the  high-speed   pinion  and   shaft,   first  remove 
the  bolts  and  nuts  from  the  flexible  jaw  coupling  and  force  the  fe- 
male halves  apart  as  far  as  possible,  removing  the  caps  and  the  up- 
per halves  of  the  bearings  and  withdraw  the  pinion,  replacing  it  by 
the  spare  one.    Exercise  care  that  the  new  pinion  is  properly  meshed 
and  that  the  shaft  of  its  own  weight  lays  solidly  in  the  bearings. 

6.  When  replacing  a  high-speed  pinion  and  after  the  assembly 
is  complete   the  teeth  of  the   pinion  need   not  be  marked. 

7.  This  lack  of  marking  will  indicate  that  the  original  pinion 
has  been  replaced. 

8.  To   reassemble   the   low-speed   pinion    and   high-speed   gear, 
the  teeth  should  be  carefully  meshed  to  the  new  markings  as  made 
and  the  mesh  checked  by  comparing  the  measurements  between  the 
journals   and   the   casing   at   the   points   where   the    shells   are   sup- 
ported.    These  measurements   must  be  equivalent  to  the  thickness 
of  the  lower  halves  of  the  bearings. 

9.  Raise  the  shaft  a  slight  distance  and  revolve  the  lower  half 
of  the  bearing  into  position. 

10.  Lower   the    shaft,    making   sure    that    it    lays    solidly   in    the 
bearings. 

11.  Check  the  teeth  markings  for  a  second  time. 

• 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  163 

IN   GENERAL. 

1.  Examine  the  buckets  and  the  thrust  or  "squealer"  rings  of 
the  turbine  periodically  to  see   that  the  proper  clearance   is  main- 
tained. 

2.  Adjust  the   pop   safety  or  sentinel  valve   on   the   condensing 
system  to  blow  off  at  the  proper  pressure.     When  this  valve  oper- 
ates, the  emergency  valve  should  immediately  be  tripped  by  hand 
to  prevent  the  flow  of  steam  to  the  condenser  and  to  bring  the  tur- 
bine to  rest. 

3.  All   bolts,   nuts,    and   other  parts  must  be   positively   locked 
to  prevent  their  working  loose. 

4.  The  emergency  valve  and  the  maneuvering  valve  should  be 
reground  when  necessary  and  must  be  kept  in  condition  to  operate 
properly.     The    emergency   valve    should    be    tripped    several    times 
each  day  to  make  certain  that  it  is  in  an  operative  condition,  and 
the    maneuvering    valve    should    be    worked    each    day    in    order    to 
break  the  scale  formation  on  the  valve  spindles. 

5.  The    emergency    governor    and    tripping    device    should    be 
systematically  cleaned  and  adjusted  to  make  certain  that  they  are 
in  an  operative  condition,  as  most  accidents  to  turbine  units  have 
resulted  from  the  long  disuse  and  neglect  of  the  safety  devices. 

6.  Make  certain  that  the  turbine  and  condenser  are  supported 
in  such  a  manner  that  there  can  be  no  appreciable  movement  be- 
tween them. 

7.  Examine    the    bucket    wheels    periodically    for    indication    of 
incrustation    and    erosion.     Under    certain    operating    conditions    it 
may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  incrustations  and  re-balance  the 
machine. 

8.  Guard  against  erosion  and  corrosion  of  the  buckets,   shroud 
bands,  and  nozzle  divisions  by  supplying  dry  steam  and  drying  the 
turbine  when  shutting  down  by  continuing  the  operation  of  the  air 
pump  while  the  turbine  is  hot. 

9.  The    drain    connection    at    the    bottom    of    the    turbine    shell 
must  be  connected  to  a  drain  pump  or  a  vacuum  trap  to  avoid  an 
accumulation  of  water  in  the  shell. 

10.  All  drain  connections  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  prevent 
vapors  entering  the  turbine. 

11.  When   the   turbine   is   shut  down   for  some   time,    close   the 
header  stop  valve  and  open  the  drains  in  the  connecting  pipe   and 
valves  to  prevent  condensation  leaking  into  the  turbine. 

12.  Keep  all  drain  valves  in  the  steam  and  oil  pipes  properly 
packed  and  the  seats  ground  to  prevent  leakage. 

13.  For  efficient  operation  the  normal  steam  and  exhaust  pres- 
sures must   be   maintained. 

14.  Allow  no  change  in  the  propeller  design  to  cause  an  over- 
load on  the  turbine  and  gears,  and  at  full  speed,   loaded,   the  pro- 
peller should  revolve  at  not  less  than  90  r.   p.  m. 

15.  The  spare  parts  and  accessories  for  the  turbine,  gears,  and 
auxiliaries  should  be   carefully  stowed  to  prevent  damage  by  rust. 

16.  USE    THE    HAND    VALVES    FOR    FULL    SPEED    ONLY. 
WHEN     OPERATING    AT     LOW     SPEEDS     KEEP     THE     HAND 
VALVES  CLOSED. 


INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  MARINE  ENGINES. 

THE    DIESEL    OIL    ENGINE. 

One  of  the  latest  additions  to  the  list  of  power  producers  is 
the  "Heavy  OH  Engine."  The  illustration  shown  is  that  of  a  300 
Horsepower  "Diesel"  and  the  sectional  diagrams  which  follow  will 
give  a  general  idea  of  the  inteiior  of  the  ordinary  engine  of  this 
type. 


164 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


This  engine  operates  on  the  principle  of  "High"  or  extreme 
compression  of  air  up  to  five  or  six  hundred  pounds  pressure  per 
square  inch.  Heavy  fuel  oil  under  pressure  of  a  single  atmos- 
phere (14.7)  pounds  (even  if  slightly  heated)  will  not  vaporize  if 
sprayed  and  atomized  but  when  the  same  oil  is  finely  atomized  and 
sprayed  and  atomized,  but  when  the  same  oil  is  finely  atomized  and 
and  ignites. 

The  technical  operation  of  the  "Diesel"  is  in  many  ways  similar 
to  the  gasolene  engine  but  it  is  too  complicated  to  be  given  here  in 
detail,  and  the  reader  may  obtain  textbooks  treating  the  subject  in 
all  its  details. 


300  Horse  Power  Diesel  Engine. 

It  may  safely  be  said  that  combustion  of  fuel  in  this  type  of 
engine  is  more  complete  than  by  any  other  internal  combustion  en- 
gine, and  that  with  proper  adjustment,  practically  no  carbon  de- 
posit remains. 

The  temperature  in  the  engine  is  only  about  one-half  that  in 
the  ordinary  gasolene  engine. 

One  peculiarity  of  the  "Diesel"  is  that  it  can  only  be  started 
by  compressed  air  and  several  revolutions  are  necessary  before 
it  becomes  oil  fired. 

Compressed  air  is  also  necessary  for  the  oil  atomized  spray  to 
feed  the  engine. 

The  air  pump  or  compressor  is  attached  to  the  engine  and 
driven  direct  from  the  engine  shaft. 

Manufacturers  of  heavy  oil  engines  are  diligently  at  work  at- 
tempting to  produce  a  two-cycle  engine  but  have  not  as  yet  suc- 
ceeded. The  type  described  is  known  as  four-cycle. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


165 


Sectional  View,  500  Horse  Power  Diesel  Engine. 

Liat  of  parts  on  next  page. 


166 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


DIESEL    ENGINE. 

1  Cylinder. 

2  Pistons. 

3  Connecting  rods. 

4  Crank   shaft. 

5  Main  bearings. 

6  Crosshead   pin. 

7  Water  jacket. 

8  Crank  webs. 

9  Crank   pin. 

10  Crank   pin   brasses. 

11  Air  inlet  valve. 

12  Exhaust  valve. 

13  Fuel  injection  valve. 

14  Two    stage    air    compresser. 

15  Engine   bed. 

16  Engine  frame. 

17  Cylinder  head. 

18  Cam   levers. 

19  Water  pump. 

20  Exhaust   outlet. 

21  Bearing   caps. 

22  Air  inlet. 

23  Crosshead  brasses. 


Admission  val' 


C.vl.  head  top  plat. 


Sectional  View  of  some  Parts  of  another  type  500  H.P.  Diesel  Engine 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


167 


End  View,  500  Horse  Power  Diesel  Engine. 

List  of  parts         opposite  page. 


168  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


CARE  AND  SUPERVISION. 


Constant  Care  is  the  keynote  of  success,  and  as  no  mechanical 
appliance  has  reasoning-  power,  it  remains  for  the  man  in  charge 
to  watch  for  the  unexpected  to  happen  and  guard  against  serious 
results  from  accident. 

More  than  ninety  per  cent  of  accidents  so  called  are  the  result 
of  gross  carelessness  and  quite  a  number  of  the  balance  are  pre- 
ventable. 

Both  the  designer  and  the  manufacturer  of  each  of  the  appli- 
ances which  are  used  in  a  steam  generating  and  power  plant  have 
done  their  best  to  ensure  their  product  against  breakage  or  fail- 
ure to  perform  its  duty,  and  it  remains  only  for  the  person  using 
the  appliance  to  do  the  rest. 

The  boiler  has  the  same  relation  to  the  steam  power  producing 
equipment  of  a  vessel  that  the  heart  has  to  the  human  body,  the 
engine  and  auxiliaries  apply  the  power  and  it  is  well  to  consider 
what  is  necessary  in  order  to  ensure  constant  efficiency  and  the 
maximum  of  return  for  time  and  fuel  used. 

Each  moving  part,  bearing,  pinion  or  other  part  of  a  machine 
speaks  a  language  which  can  be  understood  only  by  the  man  who 
takes  pride  in  his  work,  and  the  mere  time-server  never  gets  in- 
timately acquainted  with  his  machine. 

An  unusual  sound  warns  the  careful  fireman,  oiler  or  water- 
tender  as  well  as  the  most  efficient  engineer,  that  some  part  of 
the  machinery  is  making  its  appeal  for  help. 

The  man  who  can  supply  what  is  needed  and  give  aid  prompt- 
ly is  the  man  who  is  worthy  of  the  trust  imposed  upon  him  when 
human  lives  or  welfare  are  at  stake.  He  is  the  man  who  sooner 
or  later  goes  higher. 

Human  ingenuity  has  devised  aids,  checks  and  counter  checks 
to  prevent  disaster,  but  Care  and  Supervision  are  the  qualities 
that  save  lives,  perhaps  including  your  own  and  property  as  well. 

SUPERVISION  OF  BEARINGS 
AND  MOVING  PARTS. 


If  the  following  precautions  are  observed  in  caring  for  the 
bearings  and  moving  parts  of  the  engine,  serious  injury  caused  by 
overheating  may  be  avoided. 

The  Oilers  are  cautioned  against  trusting  any  part  of  the  ma- 
chinery to  always  run  well.  A  bearing,  crankpin,  crosshead,  rod  or 
guide  may  run  for  months  without  giving  trouble,  and  suddenly 
heat  up  with  little  warning. 

The  feeling  of  parts  and  oiling  of  same  should  be  done  regu- 
larly, and  with  the  greatest  care,  for  if  neglected,  something  will 
be  sure  to  get  hot  some  day,  and  bring  disgrace  along  with  it. 
Overheating  can  seldom  be  foreseen,  but  timely  attention  can  al- 
ways prevent  serious  injury  to  the  parts,  and  soon  reduce  them 
to  their  normal  condition. 

Should  any  part  of  the  machinery  begin  to  heat,  do  not  get 
excited  and  rush  wildly  about  looking  for  six  things  at  once,  and 
in  trying  to  cool  one  part,  forget  everything  else,  and  thus  cause 
a  complete  collapse;  but  keep  cool,  and  do  the  right  thing  at  the 
right  time,  and  in  a  methodical  manner.  Refrain  from  shouting, 
or  you  may  make  everybody  else  as  excited  as  you  are  yourself. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  169 

The  above  advice  may  to  many  seem  needless,  as  we  seldom 
meet  a  man  who  will  own  that  he  is  excited  or  doing  what  is  com- 
monly known  as  losing  his  head,  but  when  the  Oiier  has  his  ex- 
perience with  a  hot  pin  or  bearing,  he  will  find  it  very  difficult  to 
fo  low  our  advice  and  keep  cool. 

An  excited  man  is  best  out  of  the  way  when  work  has  to  be 
done  rightly  and  promptly. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  give  a  few  hints  as  to  what  to  do  when 
parts  in  motion  show  signs  of  heating. 

HOT   ECCENTRIC   SHEAVES   AND   STRAPS. 

The  eccentric  straps  of  many  engines  cause  a  great  deal  of 
trouble  through  heating,  and  there  are  very  few  eccentrics  that 
will  run  without  a  Slight  supply  of  water.  Many  devices  have 
been  tried  to  prevent  me  excessive  friction,  but  with  the  best  of 
them,  careful  and  regular  attention  is  necessary. 

Should  a  strap  become  hot  enough  to  seize,*  it  invariably  re- 
sults in  a  doubled  up  rod,  and  if  the  engines  are  not  stopped  im- 
mediately it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  whole  of  the  valve  gear 
may  be  carried  away. 

The  very  large  eccentrics  of  single  eccentric  gears  and  those 
placed  on  the  shaft  couplings,  will  be  found  to  require  much  more 
attention  than  the  smaller  ones  fitted  on  the  shaft.  All  should 
have  large  oil  boxes  fitted  with  syphon  wicks,  and  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  keep  the  boxes  clear  of  the  rods  by  placing  washers  on  the 
boits  between  the  box  and  the  rod. 

This  stops  any  water  from  the  glands  running  down  the  ec- 
centric rod,  entering  the  boxes  and  washing  out  the  oil,  which  it 
invariably  does  if  the  boxes  are  in  direct  contact  with  the  rods, 
even  if  the  boxes  have  lids?  which  are  usually  supplied. 

Should  a  strap  show  signs  of  heating,  plenty  of  oil,  or  oil  and 
sulphur,  or  graphite  should  be  applied,  the  water  service  put  on, 
and  the  strap  must  be  carefully  watched.  Should  the  oil  not  be 
feeding  properly,  the  pipe  and  box  must  be  cleaned,  and  refilled 
with  clean  oil,  but  should  this  not  stop  the  heating,  the  engines 
had  better  be  slowed,  and  on  the  slightest  sign  of  the  strap  seiz- 
ing, which  will  show  itself  by  the  whole  gear  shaking  violently, 
the  engines  must  be  stopped  at  once. 

On  examining  the  strap,  the  brass  liner  will  likely  be  found  to 
be  cracked,  or  one  of  the  pins  securing  the  liner  to  the  strap  will 
be  found  to  have  worked  out. 

A  cracked  sheave,  or  a  piece  of  broken  white  metal  will  also 
cause  the  trouble,  but  these  causes  can,  as  a  rule,  only  be  discov- 
ered by  stopping  and  stripping  the  gear. 

The  heating  of  the  eccentrics  and  straps  may  be  caused  by  the 
friction  of  the  slide  valves  on  their  valve  faces,  often  caused  by 
priming,  but  this  will  generally  show  itself  by  the  whole  valve  gear 
vibrating  violently,  and  showing  general  signs  of  excessive  strain. 
In  this  case  the  straps  must  be  attended  to  at  once,  and  then  a 
dose  of  cylinder  oil  must  be  given  the  valves  by  means  of  the 
Lubricator  or  oil  pump,  usually  fitted  for  the  purpose.  Should  the 
vibration  be  very  excessive,  it  is  better  to  slow  the  engine  until 
the  cylinder  oil  has  reduced  the  friction. 

Many  eccentrics  that  have  been  a  constant  source  of  trouble 
have  been  made  satisfactory  by  running  the  bottom  half  in  an 
oil  and  water  bath. 

*Seize — to   jam   or   bind,    sticking   to   the   moving   part. 


170  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

HEATING   OF   GUIDES. 

This  may  be  detected  by  sight,  by  touch  and  also  by  smell,  and 
may  be  caused  by  want  of  oil,  or  if  fitted  with  circulation  water 
at  the  back,  by  the  stoppage  of  the  water  service.  If  taken  in 
time,  the  guide  can  be  cooled  by  a  liberal  application  of  oil  with 
condensed  water. 

If  very  hot,  slow  the  engines  down,  and  use  plenty  of  oil  mixed 
with  sulphur  or  graphite  if  you  have  them  on  board. 

If  the  guides  are  scored  and  continue  to  give  trouble,  a  small 
quantity  of  white  lead  mixed  with  Castor  or  Engine  oil  to  a  thick 
paste,  and  applied  from  time  to  time,  will  be  found  to  give  good 
results. 

When  reasonably  cooled,  the  engines  can  be  opened  out  again, 
and  the  guide  brought  to  its  normal  condition  by  using  oil  and  con- 
densed water. 

Should  the  circulating  water  pipe  be  stopped,  the  pipe  must 
be  cleared. 


HOT    CROSSHEAD. 

A  hot  Crosshead  can  be  detected  by  feeling  it,  and  if  hot 
enough  to  give  off  an  odor  the  engines  should  be  slowed  down  at 
once. 

The  odor  from  a  heated  bearing  is  similar  to  that  given  off 
by  fat  burning  over  the  fire,  and  is  caused  by  the  oil  being  burned 
by  the  excessive  heat  generated  by  friction.  Once  experienced  the 
smell  is  never  forgotten. 

The  cooling  of  a  Crosshead  is  generally  a  long  job,  often  tak- 
ing six  or  eight  hours,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  heat  from  spreading  to  the  piston  rod  and  guide  shoes.  If 
constant  oiling  will  not  cool  it  while  the  engines  are  at  full  speed, 
the  engines  must  be  slowed  down.  If  this  does  not  answer,  the 
oil  is  either  not  reaching  the  pin,  or  the  bearing  is  too  tight.  If 
in  a  position  to  stop,  this  should  be  done,  the  brasses  slacked  back, 
and  the  oil  ways  cleaned,  but  if  the  steamer  is  in  confined  water, 
where  it  would  be  dangerous  to  stop  the  engines,  the  hose  must 
be  used. 

This  naturally  makes  a  nasty  mess,  and  is  liable  to  crack  the 
crosshead  brasses,  causing  trouble  to  the  Crankpin  and  Guides  by 
washing  dirt  into,  and  oil  out  of  the  bearings. 

It  may  generally  be  assumed  that  if  the  hose  has  to  be  used 
it  is  time  to  slow  down  or  come  to  a  stop,  to  readjust  the  bearing. 

HOT   PISTON    ROD. 

This  can  be  detected  in  four  ways,  by  change  of  color  of  the 
rod,  by  sense  of  touch  and  smell,  and  by  spitting  upon  it. 

If  the  expectoration  flies  off  the  rod  as  it  would  off  a  hot  plate, 
look  out  for  trouble;  but  if  it  adheres  slightly  the  rod  is  all  right. 
If  it  is  hot  enough  to  burn  the  packing,  the  odor  given  off  is  some- 
what like  burning  indiarubber,  but  feeling  the  rod  by  hand  is  the 
surest  way,  and  any  heating  is  easily  detected. 

If  considered  too  hot,  but  noticed  before  becoming  dangerously 
so,  swabbing  with  cylinder  oil  will  generally  bring  it  around  all 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  171 

right,  but  if  this  has  no  effect,  the  gland  must  be  slacked  back,  the 
rod  being  swabbed  at  intervals,  until  there  is  a  slight  escape  of 
steam  or  water.  When  this  occurs,  the  rod  will  gradually  cool, 
more  steam  and  water  escaping  as  this  proceeds,  and  when  con- 
sidered in  its  normal  condition  the  gland  should  be  set  up  again 
gently. 

These  methods  of  treatment  will  usually  answer  in  dealing 
with  rods  packed  with  soft  packing,  and  in  some  cases  with  metallic 
packing,  but  with  the  latter  great  care  and  attention  must  be  given 
to  prevent  the  packing  melting  and  seizing  the  rod. 

Warning  in  such  cases  is  sometimes  given  by  a  few  streaks  of 
the  melted  packing  showing  on  the  rod,  and  in  such  a  case  the  en- 
gines should  be  slowed  down  and  the  same  cooling  methods  adopted 
as  before. 

Should  the  metallic  packing  seize  the  rod,  the  engines  should 
be  stopped,  if  not,  the  result  will  be  a  badly  scored  rod,  necessitat- 
ing many  hours  work  removing  the  fused  metal  from  the  rod  and 
stuffing  box.  Newly  packed  glands,  and  especially  those  of  new 
engines  taken  over  after  a  trial  trip  require  constant  attention  for 
a  day  or  two,  but  once  they  are  in  good  running  order,  with  regu- 
lar attention,  but  little  further  trouble  may  be  expected. 

HOT    MAIN    BEARINGS. 

The  Main  Bearings  should  be  given  as  much  attention  as  any 
other  part  of  the  machine,  as  neglect  will  cause  serious  trouble  and 
heavy  expense.  Should  any  of  these  bearings  become  so  hot  as  to 
melt  the  metal,  it  is  usually  impossible  to  renew  the  brass  without 
lifting  the  shaft  which  is  a  matter  of  great  expense  and  delay. 

When  a  bearing  shows  signs  of  heating,  give  it  a  good  supply 
of  oil,  and  note  particularly  if  the  oil  is  getting  into  the  bearing, 
if  not,  lift  off  the  oil  box  and  see  if  the  oil  will  enter  the  bearing 
through  the  oil  holes,  and  if  it  does  so  the  bearing  will  cool  down. 
The  oil  box  and  wicks  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  replaced. 
If  the  bearing,  although  taking  the  oil,  continues  to  heat,  apply 
oil  and  sulphur  or  graphite  and  run  water  gently  on  each  side  of 
the  brass,  but  not  on  the  cap;  slack  back  the  set  screws,  and  get 
a  sledge  hammer  and  wrench  ready  for  slacking  back  the  nuts. 

If  the  bearing  continues  to  heat  with  the  water  service  on, 
note  the  position  of  the  nuts,  slow  the  engine  down  and  proceed 
to  slack  back  the  nuts  with  the  sledge.  A  turn  of  half  a  square 
of  the  nut  will  generally  be  found  ample.  Continued  heating  of 
bearing  after  being  liberally  supplied  with  oil  and  water  is  gen- 
erally caused  by  grit  having  entered  with  the  oil,  or  a  piece  of 
yvhite  metal  having  worked  loose.  Slacking  the  bearing  and  slow- 
ing the  engine  may.  give  it  a  chance  to  work  out. 

If  the  bearing  continues  to  get  dangerously  hot,  and  the  oil 
shows  any  sign  of  burning,  the  engine  must  be  stopped,  and  the 
brass  lifted  and  examined. 

Once  the  bearing  is  too  hot  for  the  oil,  no  amount  of  water  will 
make  it  run,  and  continued  use  will  only  result  in  scoring  the 
shaft  and  metal,  causing  the  bearing  to  wear  rapidly  and  continue 
to  give  trouble  until  properly  adjusted. 

Some  main  bearings  are  fitted  with  a  hand  hole  through  which 
the  bearing  may  be  felt,  and  a  large  quantity  of  oil  may  be 
poured  on  the  bearing  through  this  handhole. 


172  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

HOT  CRANKPIN. 

This  being  the  largest  and  most  important  moving  part  that 
cannot  be  adjusted  while  in  motion,  it  naturally  should  have  the 
greatest  care  devoted  to  it,  and  any  sign  of  heating  should  be 
immediately  attended  to  and  corrected. 

It  can  only  be  felt  during  a  small  portion  of  its  motion,  there- 
fore, one  has  to  be  particularly  careful.  The  brasses  should  al- 
ways be  felt  on  both  sides,  as  a  brass  will  often  be  quite  hot  on  one 
side  before  showing  the  slightest  sign  of  heat  on  the  other. 

The  Oiler  should  practice  feeling  the  crankpin  brasses  with 
both  right  and  left  hands,  at  the  same  time  being  careful  to  pre- 
vent injury  to  his  hands.  Should  the  bearing  show  signs  of  heat- 
ing apply  water  service  carefully. 

A  liberal  supply  of  oil  at  frequent  intervals  will  usually  reduce 
the  heat  if  the  oil  ways  are  clear,  if  not,  the  water  must  be  applied 
until  the  brass  is  cooled. 

If,  on  shutting  the  water  off,  the  brasses  heat  again,  the  en- 
gines ought  to  be  stopped  and  the  cause  ascertained.  If  it  is  a 
choked  oil  pipe,  the  brasses  will  generally  run  all  right  after  clear- 
ing the  pipe  and  starting,  but  if  not,  the  cause  may  generally  be 
laid  to  a  piece  of  white  metal  having  become  loose,  thereby  caus- 
ing excessive  friction.  In  the  latter  case  the  brasses  should  be 
cleaned  out  and  the  bearing  readjusted. 

While  on  the  subject  of  Crankpin  Bearings,  it  is  well  to  enter 
a  protest  against  the  constant  use  of  water  as  a  cooling  medium. 
If  fitted  with  white  metal  as  is  the  usual  practice,  crankpin  bear- 
ings will  run  even  when  considerably  heated  and  if  the  heat  in  any 
bearing  is  not  enough  to  decompose  the  lubricant,  the  bearing  will 
run  well  if  it  is  regularly  oiled. 

If  on  feeling  the  crankpin  brasses  a  small  quantity  of  oil  in 
fairly  liquid  state  remains  on  the  hand,  and  the  brasses  feel  hot, 
but  moist,  the  bearing  may  be  said  to  be  all  right;  but  if  the 
brasses  give  off  a  dry  burning  feeling  to  the  hand,  things  are  go- 
ing wrong. 


HOT   THRUST    BLOCK. 

With  ordinary  care  and  attention  the  Thrusts  are  not  apt  to 
become  dangerously  overheated,  but  this  may  happen  by  reason  of 
carelessness  or  faulty  design  of  the  parts.  Thrusts  are  run  in  a 
mixture  of  oil  and  water,  and  if  enough  oil  is  given  to  combine, 
generally  run  smoothly.  If  they  show  signs  of  heating,  it  is  not 
enough  to  simply  increase  the  water  supply;  the  oil  also  must  be 
increased,  and  the  pipes  examined  to  see  that  they  are  free. 

In  the  Horse  Shoe  Type  of  Thrust  which  has  the  shoes  hung 
on  a  through  bolt  and  adjusted  by  nuts,  if  any  shoe  shows  con- 
tinued heating,  it  can  be  slacked  back  slfghtly,  care  being  taken 
to  again  secure  it  firmly  in  place,  by  use  of  the  adjusting  nuts. 

Some  Thrusts  run  in  a  bath  of  oil.  In  either  case  the  oil  or 
mixture  must  be  added  to  from  time  to  time,  or  hot  collars  will  be 
the  results. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


173 


USEFUL   INFORMATION   CONCERNING  AIDS  TO   NAVIGATION 


Buoy  colors,  numbers,  and  shapes. — Conforming-  with  United 
States  statutes,  the  following  order  is  observed,  viz: 

In  approaching  a  channel,  etc.,  from  seaward,  red  buoys, 
with  even  numbers,  will  be  found  on  the  starboard  side;  black 
buoys,  with  odd  numbers,  on  the  port  side;  red  and  black  hori- 
zontally striped  buoys  on  obstructions  with  channelways  on  either 
side  of  them;  and  wh'ite  and  black  perpendicularly  striped  buoys 
in  mid-channel,  and  must  be  passed  close-to. 

Perches  with  balls,  cages,  etc.,  on  buoys,  mark  turning  points, 
the  color  and  number  of  the  buoy  indicating  on  which  side  it  shall 
be  passed. 

Nun  buoys,  properly  colored  and  numbered,  are  usually  placed 
on  the  starboard  side,  and  can  buoys  on  the  port  side,  of  channels. 

Day  beacons  are  constructed  and  distinguished  with  special 
reference  to  each  locality,  and  particularly  in  regard  to  the  back- 
ground upon  which  they  are  projected.  Beacons  on  the  sides  of 
channels  when  practicable  are  colored  to  conform  to  the  coloring 
of  buoys,  subject  to  the  above  conditions  as  to  background. 

Buoy  Lists,  obtainable  on  application  to  the  Division  of  Pub- 
lications, Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C.,  contain 
full  description  of  all  aids  to  navigation.  Notices  to  Mariners 
give  information  of  all  changes  in  aids. 

Protection  of  aids. — It  is  unlawful  to  interfere  with  or  make 
fast  to  an  aid  to  navigation,  and  collision  with  an  aid  must  be 
promptly  reported  to  the  nearest  inspector  of  steamboats. 

Defects  in  aids  to  navigation  should  be  reported  at  once  to 
the  nearest  lighthouse  inspector. 

Distances  of  visibility  for  objects  of  various  elevations  above 
sea  level: 


Height,  in 
ieet. 

Distance,  in 
nautical  miles. 

'  Height,  in 
feet. 

Distance',  in 
nautical  miles. 

Height,  in 

feet.' 

Distance,  in 
nautical  miles-. 

5 

2.55 

50 

8.08 

95 

11.14 

10 

3.61 

55 

8.48 

100 

11.43 

15 

4.43 

60 

8.85 

110 

11.99 

20 

5.11 

65 

9.21 

120 

12.  53 

25 

5.71 

70 

9.56 

130 

13.03 

30 

6.26 

75 

9.90 

140 

13.  52 

35 

6.76 

80 

10.22 

150 

14.00 

40 

7.23 

85 

10.54 

200 

16.16 

45 

7.67 

90 

10.  84 

Add  distance  for  height  of  observer's  eye  above  s,ea  level. 


174 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  175 

SIGNALS  USED  BY  MARINERS. 


SIGNALS    FROM    PILOT    HOUSE    TO    ENGINE    ROOM 


When  engine  is  stopped,  One  bell  for  Ahead  Slow. 

When  running  ahead  slow,  Jingle  for  Full  Speed  Ahead. 

When  running  full  speed  ahead,  One  bell  for  Slow  Down. 

When  running  ahead  slow,  One  bell  for  Stop. 

When  stopped,  Two  bells  for  Astern. 

When   running   astern,   jingle   bell   for   full   speed   Astern. 

When  running  astern,   One  bell  for  Stop. 

When  running    full    speed    ahead,    Four    bells    for    Full    Speed 
Astern. 

When  running  ahead  slow,  Three  bells  for  Full  Speed  Astern. 


SIGNALS  OF  DISTRESS. 


When  a  vessel  is  in  distress  and  requires  assistance  from  other 
vessels  or  from  the  shore,  the  following  shall  be  the  signals  to  be 
used  or  displayed  by  her,  either  together  or  separately: 

IN    THE    DAYTIME— 

(1)  A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at  intervals  of  about 
a  minute; 

(2)  The    International    Code    Signal    of    Distress    indicated    by 
NC; 

(3)  The    distant    signal,    consisting    of   a    square    flag,    having 
either  above  or  below  it  a  ball  or  anything  resembling  a  ball. 

(4)  The    distant    signal,    consisting   of   a    cone    point   upward, 
having  either  above  or  below  it  a  ball  or  anything  resembling  a  ball; 

(5)  A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fog  signal  apparatus. 

AT  NIGHT— 

(1)  A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at  intervals  of  about 
a  minute; 

(2)  Flames   on   the  vessel    (as   from   a  burning   tar  barrel,    oil 
barrel,  etc.); 

(3)  Rockets  or  shells,  throwing  stars  of  any  color  or  descrip- 
tion, fired  one  at  a  time  at  short  intervals; 

(4)  A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fogr-signal  apparatus. 


176  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


INTERNATIONAL  CODE  OF  SIGNALS 


INSTRUCTIONS  HOW  TO  SIGNAL 


In  the  following  instructions  the  ship  making  the  signal  is  called 
A;  the  ship  signaled  to  is  called  B 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  SIGNAL 

Ship  A,  wishing  to  make  a  signal,  hoists  her  Ensign  with  the 
Code  Flag  under  it. 

If  more  than  one  vessel  or  signal  station  is  in  sight,  and  the 
signal  is  intended  for  a  particular  vessel  or  signal  station,  ship  A 
should  indicate  which  vessel  or  signal  station  she  is  addressing  by 
making  the  distinguishing  signal  (i.  e.,  the  signal  letters)  of  the 
vessel  or  station  with  which  she  desires  to  communicate. 

If  the  distinguishing  signal  is  not  known,  ship  A  should  make 
use  of  one  of  the  signals  DI  to  DQ. 

'  When  ship  A  has  been  answered  by  the  vessel  she  is  addressing, 
she  proceeds  with  the  signal  which  she  desires  to  make,  first 
hauling  down  her  Code  Flag  if  it  is  required  for  making  the  signal. 

Signals  should  always  be  hoisted  where  they  can  best  be  seen, 
and  not  necessarily  at  the  masthead. 

Each  hoist  should  be  kept  flying  until  ship  B  hoists  her  An- 
swering Pennant  "Close  up." 

When  ship  A  has  finished  signaling  she  hauls  down  her  Ensign, 
and  her  Code  Flag,  if  the  latter  has  not  already  been  hauled  down. 

HOW  TO  ANSWER  A  SIGNAL 

Ship  B  (the  ship  signaled  to),  on  seeing  the  signal  made'  by 
Ship  A,  hoists  her  Answering  Pennant  at  the  "Dip." 

(A  flag  is  at  the  "Dip"  when  it  is  hoisted  about  two-thirds  of 
the  way  up,  that  is,  some  little  distance  below  where  it  would  be 
when  hoisted  "Close  Up.") 

The  Answering  Pennant  should  always  be  hoisted  where  it  can 
best  be  seen. 

When  A's  hoist  has  been  read,  looked  up  in  the  Signal  Book, 
and  is  understood,  B  hoists  her  Answering  Pennant  "Close  Up" 
and  keeps  it  there  until  A  hauls  her  hoist  down. 

B  then  lowers  her  Answering  Pennant  to  the  "Dip"  and  waits 
for  the  next  hoist. 

If  the  flags  in  A's  hoist  can  not  be  made  out,  or  if,  when  the 
flags  are  made  out,  the  purport  of  the  signal  is  not  understood,  B 
keeps  her  Answering  Pennant  at  the  "Dip"  and  hoists  the  signal 
OWL  or  WCX,  or  such  other  signal  as  may  meet  the  case;  and 
when  A  has  repeated  or  rectified  her  signal,  and  B  thoroughly  un- 
derstands it,  B  hoists  her  Answering  Pennant  "Close  Up." 

Note. — Complete  instructions  for  using  the  International  Code 
may  be  found  in  the  International  Code  Book,  published  by  the 
Hydrographic  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


177 


O 

HH 

CO 


H 
Q 
O 
CJ 


I 


178 


THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 


C/3  ' 
- 

O 

- 

Q 

B 


O 

p 


Pi 
w 

H 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


179 


o 

HH 

CD 
- 

O 

w 

Q 

8 


180 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE      MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  181 


UNITED  STATES  STORM  WARNINGS. 


The  Warnings  Adopted  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
for  Announcing  the  Approach  of  Wind  Storms  are  as  follows: 

Storm  Warning  (a  red  flag,  eight  feet  square,  with  black  centVe, 
three  feet  square),  indicates  that  a  storm  of  marked  violence  is 
expected.  This  flag  is  never  used  alone. 

Red  Pennant  (eight  feet  hoist  and  fifteen  feet  fly)  displayed 
with  the  flags,  indicates  easterly  winds,  that  is,  from  the  northeast 
to  south,  inclusive,  and  that  the  storm  centre  is  approaching. 

White  Pennant  (eight  feet  hoist  and  fifteen  feet  fly)  displayed 
with  the  flags,  indicates  westerly  winds,  that  is,  from  north  to 
southwest,  inclusive,  and  that  the  centre  has  passed. 

Red  Pennant  if  hoisted  above  the  Storm  Warning,  winds  are 
expected  from  the  NORTHEAST  QUADRANT;  when  below,  from 
the  SOUTHEAST  QUADRANT. 

White  Pennant  if  hoisted  above  the  storm  warning,  winds  are 
expected  from  the  NORTHWEST  QUADRANT;  when  below,  from 
the  SOUTHWEST  QUADRANT. 

Night  Storm  Warnings — By  night  a  RED  LIGHT  will  indicate 
EASTERLY  WINDS;  a  WHITE  above  a  RED  LIGHT  will  indicate 
WESTERLY  WINDS. 

Hurricane  Warning  (two  storm  warning  flags,  red  with  black 
centres,  displayed  one  above  the  other)  indicates  the  expected  ap- 
proach of  a  tropical  hurricane  or  of  an  extremely  severe  and  dan- 
gerous storm. 

No  Night  Hurricane  Warnings  are  displayed. 

A  yellow  flag  with  white  centre  is  a  cautionary  signal. 

Signals  should  be  read  from  the  top  of  the  staff  downward. 
These  signals  indicate  the  weather  forecasts  for  the  twenty- four 
hours  commencing  at  8  o'clock  A.  M. 


182 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


,  ,  1            1  , 

d  o     .  » 

•«*"§! 

-s 

c 

1  '               1  ' 

II, 

8S 
S  i 

TH  PT 

c 

c. 
i 

cr 

VC 

i      :  i        i 

LI' 

0 

0  I 

d 

Js 

"S 

H 

3 

<  -s 

z  i 

TJ 
C 
O 

XO^S««S,B!.SM>.S 

0* 

"•S-rJ  g 
1-1  c  c  § 

CD    = 

j_,     (D     W     r/) 

d  S    co 

1 

S     *     «     O 

II             1 

ii  ^ 

rt  o^^  t 

T 

.                             1 

<•£    2    3    ^g  t 

r 

CO  o 
DC  o 
0  ^ 

3  o  c-g-s 
i-a  -8  s 

^ 

^ 
c. 

TC 
i 

1       1       1       1                             1                      . 

II                     '       1       '       ' 
ill              1       1       1       1       1       1              1 

5  3 

^5)2?^ 

nj  "-i   bC  o  a 

«^^S! 

a 

a. 

• 

4 

0 

*j    >    'sD^Q.r 

r 

•3 

o'-S   G 

.9 

.-H        g       >_,    'Trt    ^ 

13    ^    4)    S    § 

i 

C     5     ^     JH     ^ 

"^   5^  co  <u   a 

c 

i 

!£<^3 

c 

;       i 

^MOOH^CW^MaS 

THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


183 


CONVENTIONAL,  SIGNALS:   THEIR  EQUIVALENT  LETTEB8  ANT>  TH« 
METHOD  OF  ANSWERING  THEM. 


Hcantne. 

acn. 

EQoivnieot  l«n«r  aad 
bo«  nude. 

HowAu««r«d 

£'•  in  one  group. 

BU"¥nm"° 

Answer. 



T  <«inglyV 

Break  oca. 

..        -. 

I  I  as  separate  let- 
ter*. 

ffe/m. 

1  lene"  "ep*rate 

Finish  of  a  mes- 

Mfft 

.,  

V  E  as  one  gronp. 

mm  i  D 

as  separate  letters. 

Eraw  «<»t*. 

E's  a»  separate 
letter*. 

E's  a*  tfeparate 
letters. 

Annul 

w                w 

W  Was  one  group. 

By  W  W  as  one 
group. 

Repeat  word  aft- 
er —  (when  a 
•ingle  word  is 
required). 

I               M              1 

"  "V"~       "  "A" 

followwl  by  the  word  preceding 
the  one  required 

I  M  I  as  one  gronp. 

W  A  AS  separate 
letters. 

By  the    general 
answer  T. 

Repeat  all  tter  f 
—  (ifmorethAD 
one  word  is  re- 
quired). 

I             M             I 
A                    A 

1  M  I  AS  one  gronp  i 

A  A  AS  separate 
letters. 

By  the    general 
answer  T 

Repeat  all  (if  the  ( 
whole  message 
U  to  be  repeat- 
ed.) 

I              M              I 

A       '       "  17  "              ""   L 

I  M  I  as  one  group  i 

A  L  L  AS  separate 
letters. 

By   the    Kvneral 
answer  T 

181  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

MORSE  SIGNAL  CODE— Continued 


THE  USE  OF  THE  SPECIAL  SIGNS 


The   Preparative. 

13  used  to  call  attention,  and  is  answered  by  the  General  An- 
swer. 

The   General    Answer. 
Is  made  by  a  long  flash  ,  or  letter  T. 

The  Break  Sign. 

Is  to  be  used  between  the  address  of  the  receiver  and  the  text 
of  the  message,  and,  after  the  text,  if  the  name  of  the  gender  is 
signalled. 

The  Stop. 
Is  made  by  three  separate  letter  I's. 

THE    FINISH 

Is  to  be  made  by  V  E  in  one  group  at  the  completion  of  a  mes- 
sage, and  is  to  be  answered,  if  the  message  is  understood,  by  R  D 
in  separate  letters.  N.  B. — R.  D.  means  Read. 

The    Erase 

Is  made  by  a  series  of  E's  as  separate  letters,  and  is  used  to 
erase  a  word  or  group  that  has  been  wrongly  sent,  and  is  to  be 
answered  by  the  Erase. 

The    Annul 

Is  made  by  W  W  in  one  group,  and  is  used  to  negative  ALL, 
the  message  that  has  gone  before,  and  is  to  be  answered  by  the 
Annul. 

Method    of   Answering 

Each  word  when  understood  is  to  be  answered  by  one  long 
flash  (T). 

If  a  word  is  not  answered,  the  sender  is  to  repeat  it  until  an- 
swered by  a  long  flash. 

At  the  end  of  the  message,  if  understood,  receiver  will  make 
(or  R  D),  meaning  Read. 

The  Erase  and  Annul  signs  are  to  be  answered  by  their  own 
signs. 

Method  of  Signalling   Numbers 

All  numerals  .whether  representing  time,  distance,  numbers, 
etc.,  are  to  be  spelled  in  full. 

If  the  receiver  requires  any  word  to  be  repeated,  he  makes 

Repeat  W  A 

(or,  repeat  word  after)  the  word — (or,  if  necessary,  words)  preced- 
ing the  doubtful  word. 

Note. — When  W  A  is  only  sent,  the  Repeat  sign  is  implied. 

If  the  receiver  requires  the  remainder  of  the  message,  he  makes 

Repeat  A  A 

(or,   repeat  all  after)   the  word — preceding  the  doubtful  ones. 
If  the  receiver  wants  all  the  message  repeated,  he  makes 

Repeat  A  L  L 

When    he    requires    no    more    repetition,    he    makes 

(or,  R.  D.)  which  means  the  signal  is  read. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  185 

MORSE  SIGNAL  CODE— Continued 


If  a  Mistake  is  Made  in  a  Word 

The   sender  makes   the   Erase   sign etc.,   E's   as 

separate  letters,  which  is  to  be  answered  by  the  Erase  sign. 
N.   B. — This  only  applies  to  the   last  word  made. 

If  a   Whole    Message   Requires  to   be   Negatived 

The  sender  makes  the  Annul (or,  W  W 

as  one  group),  which  is  to  be  answered  by  the  Annul. 


LIGHT     AND     SOUND     SIGNALS,    ACCORDING     TO 
COLOMB'S  FLASHING  SIGNALS  SYSTEM. 


The  following  urgent  and  important  signals  may  be  made  at 
night  or  in  thick  weather,  either  by  long  and  short  flashes  of  light 
or  by  long  and  short  sounds  on  a  steam  whistle,  siren,  fog  horn, 
etc.: 

Instructions  for  the  Use  of  Flashing  or  Sound  Signals. 

With  flashing  signals  the  lamp  must  always  be  turned  toward 
the  person  addressed. 

To  attract  attention,  a  series  of  rapid  short  flashes  or  sounds 
should  be  made  and  continued  until  the  person  addressed  gives  the 
sign  of  attention  by  doing  the  same. 

If,  however,  it  is  .supposed  that  the  person  addressed  can  not 
reply,  the  signal  may  be  made  after  a  moderate  pause,  or,  under 
certain  circumstances,  the  communication  may  be  made  without 
preparatory  signs. 

After  making  a  few  rapid  short  flashes  or  sounds  as  an  ac- 
knowledgment, the  receiver  must  watch  or  listen  attentively  until 
the  communication  is  completed,  when  he  must  make  the  sign 
indicated  below,  showing  that  the  message  is  understood. 

If  the  receiver  does  not  understand  the  message,  he  must  wait 
until  the  signal  is  repeated. 

Duration  of  short  flashes  or  sounds  — 1  second. 

Duration  of  long  flashes  or  sounds  3  seconds. 

Interval  between  each  flash  or  sound 1  second. 

Answer,  or,  "I  understand" etc. 

SIGNALS 

You  are  standing  into  danger 

I  want  assistance;   remain  by  me 

Have   encountered   ice 

Your  lights  are  out   (or,  need  trimming)    

The  way  is  off  my  ship;  you  may  leel  your  way  past 

me    — 

Stop,   or,  heave  to;   I  have  something  important  to 

communicate , 

Am  disabled;   communicate  with  me     

When  a  vessel  is  in  tow,  the  following  signals  made  by  flashes 
of  light  may  be  used  between  her  and  the  tug  or  towing  vessel: 

Steer  more  to  starboard — 

Steer  more   to   port 

Cast  off  hawsers   — 


186  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

SEMAPHORE     SIGNALS. 

Instructions    for   the    Use    of   the    British    Movable    Semaphore. 
THE    INDICATOR. 

The  Indicator  denotes  from  which  side  the  signs  are  to  be  read, 
but  when  first  shown  it  is  to  call  attention,  and  may  be  considered 
the  preparative  signal.  When  closed  it  denotes  the  finish  of  the  com- 
munication. 

HOW    TO    SEMAPHORE. 

The  person  intending  to  Semaphore  will  make  the  International 
Code  Signal  VOX  (I  am  going  to  Semaphore  to  you),  and  set  his 
Semaphore  at  the  alphabetical  sign  (see  illustration)  with  the 
Indicator  out,  and  wait  until  the  person  to  whom  the  Semaphore 
signal  is  to  be  made  hoists  his  answering  pennant  Close  Up.  Then 
he  will  proceed  with  the  communication  by  spelling,  making  a 
momentary  pause  between  each  sign  or  letter;  the  arms  are  to  be 
dropped  between  each  word  or  group,  the  Indicator  alone  remain- 
ing out. 

Should  the  answering  pennant  be  dipped  by  the  person  taking 
in  the  signal,  the  last  two  words  are  to  be  repeated  until  the 
answering  pennant  is  again  hoisted  Close  Up. 

When  in  the  middle  of  a  spelling  signal  numerals  have  to  be 
made,  the  Semaphore  is  to  be  put  at  the  numeral  sign  (see  illus- 
tration), and  the  number  then  made.  When  the  numeral  signal 
is  finished  the  alphabetical  sign  is  to  be  made  and  the  communica- 
tion by  spelling  proceeded  with. 

HOW  TO   ANSWER   AND   TAKE    IN    SEMAPHORE    SIGNALS. 

The  answering  pennant  is  to  be  hoisted  Close  Up  by  the  person 
taking  in  the  Semaphore  signal,  thus  denoting  he  is  ready  to  read 
and  write  down  the  signal. 

It  is  to  be  "dipped"  when  a  word  is  lost,  and  the  person  making 
the  signal  is  then  to  repeat  the  two  last  words  until  the  answering 
pennant  is  hoisted  again  Close  Up. 

In  answering  by  the  Semaphore  the  And  in  position  (3)  - 

arm   in  position    ( i )    represents  the  an-          ^  the    answering     pennant 


swering  pennant  at  the  dip. 


close  up. 


SEMAPHORING    BY    HAND    FLAGS. 

British   Wig-Wag. 

The  British  method  of  Semaphoring  by  flags  held  in  the  hand 
which  is  shown  in  illustration  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  British 
Movable  Semaphore  system,  the  positions  of  the  apparatus  which 
denote  the  letters,  numbers,  and  special  signs  being,  it  will  be 
seen,  identical  in  each  case,  and  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
apparatus  employed. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


187 


THE   BRITISH    MOVABLE   SEMAPHORE. 


SEMAPHORE  SIGNS. 


GOVERNING  SIGNS. 


Preparative. 

When  closed 
it  denotes 
the  finish. 


H          I 


„£.,*.   K 


M 


W 


^p£2M'4aDb^^dWiu^  t&SWZS^SS^*"*1*  •*nme»a«n  "  «*  steM  •«  Aown  b,  U- 


188  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

DISTANT    SIGNALS. 

1.  Distant   Signals   are  required  when,   in  consequence  of  dis- 
tance or  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish 
the   colors   of  the   flags   of   the   International    Code,    and,    therefore, 
to  read  a  signal  made  by  those  flags;  they  also  provide  an  alterna- 
tive system    of    making    the    signals    in    the    Code,    which    can    be 
adopted  when  the  system  of  flags  can  not  be  employed. 

2.  Three  different  methods  of  making  Distant  Signals  are  ex- 
plained below: 

(a)  By   Cones,    Balls,    and   Drums. 

(b)  By  Balls,   Square  Flags,   Pennants,   and  Whefts. 

(c)  By  the  Fixed  Coast  Semaphore. 

The  last  method  (Fixed  Coast  Semaphore)  is  not  necessarily  a 
'method  of  making  Distant  Signals,  as  it  can  be,  and  is,  used  at 
close  quarters  and  under  conditions  when  flags  could  equally  be 
employed,  but  it  has  been  placed  here  under  the  heading  of  Distant 
Signals  for  ease  of  explanation. 

3.  The  Characteristic  of  Distant  Signals  is  the  Ball;   one  ball 
at  least  appearing  in  each  hoist  of  the  Distant  Code.     In  the  case 
of  the  Semaphore  the  ball  is  replaced  by  a  Disc. 

4.  Hitherto   only   three    Symbols   have    been   required    for   Dis- 
tant Signaling,  but  the  increase  made  in  the  number  of  flags  of  the 
International   Code   renders   four   Symbols   necessary,    in   order   that 
it  may  be  possible  to  provide  a  distant  hoist  to  represent  each  of 
the  flags  of  the  Code   (i.  e.,  letters  of  the  alphabet). 

5.  Distant  Signals  are  made 

From  a  ship — by  hoisting  shapes. 

From  the  shore — by  hoisting  shapes,  or  by  the  position  of 
the  arms  of  a  Semaphore. 

6.  The  Shapes  used  as  Symbols  are: 

(a)  A  Cone   point   upward. 
A  Ball. 

A  Cone  point  downward,  and 

A  Drum.  (The  Drum  should  be  at  least  one-third 
greater  in  height  than  the  Ball.) 

(b)  A  square  Flag  may  be  substituted  for  the  cone  point 

upward. 
A  Ball. 
A  Pennant   may    be    substituted    for    the    cone    point 

downward,  and 

A  Pennant  with  the  fly  tied  to  the  halyards,  or  a 
Wheft  for  the  drum.  (A  wheft  is  any  flag  tied  in 
the  center.) 

As  in  calms,  or  when  the  wind  is  blowing  toward  or  from  the  ob- 
server, it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  with  certainty  between  a 
square  flag,  pennant,  and  wheft,  and  as  flags  when  hanging  up 
and  down  may  hide  one  of  the  balls  and  so  prevent  the  signal  being 
understood,  the  system  of  cones  and  drums  is  preferable  to  that 
of  flags,  pennants,  and  whefts. 

(c)  In  signaling  by  the   Semaphore,   the  positions  of  the 
arms  represent  the  shapes. 

7.  To    simplify    the    "Taking    in,"    "Reporting,"    and    "Reading 
off"   of  the   Distant   Signals;    the   four   positions   of   the    Semaphore 
Arms,  and  the  four  Symbols  have  been  numbered  1,   2.   3,   4. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


189 


GENERAL  ALPHABETICAL  TABLE  FOR  MAKING  THE 

INTERNATIONAL  CODE    SIGNALS    BY   MEANS 

OF   DISTANT   SIGNALS   BY   SHAPES. 


"PREPARATIVE,"  "ANSWERING," 

OR  "STOP,  "after  each 
complete  signal. 


ANNUL,  THE  WHOLE  SIQNAU 


fcf 

W  ' 


ft 


:.!* 


SPECIAL  SIONa 


L 

21 


Code  Flag 
Sign. 

4    ... 


u 

•  • 


"ssrM; 

*;»»  Ir 


Numeral 
Sign, 


M 


" 

> 


3 


Finishing  sign  after 
completion  of  word  or 
number  when  spelling 
or  making  numeral 
signals. 


If  no  cones  are  available,  a  square  flag  may  be  substituted  for  the  cone  point  upward,  a  pennant 
(or  the  cone  point  downward,  and  a  wheft  for  the  drum. 


190 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


GENERAL  ALPHABETICAL  TABLE  FOR  MAKING  THE 

INTERNATIONAL  CODE  SIGNALS   BY  MEANS  OF 

DISTANT  SIGNALS   BY   FIXED   SEMAPHORE. 


•PRKPAHATTVE,"  "ANSWERING." 
or  "STOP"  after  each  com- 
plete signal. 


ANNUI,  THE  WHOLE  SIONAJL. 


c 

1    2    2 


z 

J    2    4 


L 

221 


J 


F 

1    3    2 


V 

3    1    * 


Sign. 
4    2    3 


Finishing  sign  after 
completion  of  word  or 
number,  wbtn  spelling 
or  making  numeral 
signals 


THE      MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


191 


1  representing  the  Semaphore  Arm  pointing  upward, 

on  the    opposite  side  to  the  indicator,  a  Cone 
with  the  point  upward,  or  a  square  Flag. 

Indicator 

2  representing  the   Semaphore   Arm  pointing 

zontally,  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  :~j: 
or  a  Ball. 


3  representing  the  Semaphore  Arm  pointing  down- 
ward, on  the  opposite-  side  to  the  indicator,  a 
Cone  with  the  point  downward,  or  a  Pennant. 


4  representing  the  Semaphore  Arm  pointing  hori- 
zontally, on  the  same  side  as  the  indicator,  a 
Drum,  or  a  Pennant  with  the  fly  tied  to  the 
halyards,  or  a  Wheft. 

Indicato 


8.  To  facilitate  signaling  by  Semaphore  or  Shapes,   the  signals 
representing-    the    letters    of    the    alphabet    have    been    arranged    in 
numerical  order,   the   figures  representing  the  signal   for  the  letter 
A  being  the  first  in  numerical  sequence. 

Thus  A  is  represented  by  1  1  2. 
Thus  B  is  represented  by  1  2  1. 
Thus  C  is  represented  by  i  2  2, 

etc.,  etc. 
The  signals  representing  the  letters  from  A  to  G  begin 

with  1, 

Those  from  H  to  U  begin  with  2, 
Those  from  V  to  Z  begin  with  3, 

Anci  the  Special  Signs  (i.  e.,  Code  Flag,  Alphabetical,  Nu- 
merical, and  Finishing  Signs)  begin  with  4.  (See  il- 
lustration.) 

9.  The  Code  Flag-  Sign  421  (see  illustration)  is  always  to  be 
shown   before    signals   taken   from   the   General   Vocabulary   of   the 
International   Code  are   commenced. 

10.  When  signals  are  made  by  the  Semaphore  the  disc  is  al- 
ways to  be  kept  up  until  the  signal  is  completed,   and  the  hoist  is 
to  be   read   from   the    top   arm   downward. 


192 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


11.     The  Stop  Signal 
signal. 


i  is  to  be  made  at  the  end  of  each  complete 


12.  With  two  Balls,  two  Cones,  and  one  Drum,  every  signal  in 
the  International  Code  can  be  made,  each  hoist  representing  one 
letter  of  the  two,  three,  or  four  letters  forming  the  signal. 


EXAMPLE  OF  A  SIGNAL  FROM  THE  INTERNATIONAL  CODE 

MADE   BY    FIXED   SEMAPHORE   OR 'DISTANT   SIGNALS. 


the  sign 
lows  is  taken  from 
the  General  Vocabu 
Ian?  of  the  Interna 
tional  Code. 


Looking  DNI  out  in  the  International  Code,  we  find  it  to  be  "  Pilot  boat  is  advancing  toward  y 


ALPHABETICAL    DISTANT   SIGNALS. 

13.  When  it  is  desired  to  spell  a  word  by  Distant  Signals,  the 
Alphabetical  Sign  422   (see  illustration)   is  to  be  shown  first.     All 
the   hoists   which   follow   until   the   Finishing   Sign   432    (.see    illus- 
tration) is  shown  are  to  be  understood  as  representing  the  particu- 
lar letters  of  the  alphabet  allotted  to  them  in  illustrations  which, 
when  combined,  spell  the  word  which  it  is  desired  to  signal. 

NUMERAL     DISTANT    SIGNALS. 

14.  When  it  is  desired  to  signal  numbers  by  Distant   Signals, 
the    Numeral    Sign    423    (see    illustration)    is    to    be    shown    first. 
After  that  sign  has  been  shown,  and  until  the  Finishing  Sign  432 
(see    illustration)    is    shown,    the    hoists    representing    the    various 
letters   of  the   alphabet    (see   illustration)    are   to   be   understood   as 
having  the   numerical   values   which   are   allotted   to   the   particular 
letters  under  the  system  of  making  Numeral  Signals  by  flags. 

Thus,  after  the  Numeral  Sign  423  has  been  shown,  the  Distant 
Signal  hoist  representing  the  letter  A  will  mean  the  number  1,  that 
representing  B  will  mean  2,  that  representing  K  v/ill  mean  11,  and 
so  on. 

SPECIAL    DISTANT    SIGNALS. 

15.  As  shown  in  the  Example  to  Paragraph  12,   above,   signals 
from  the  General  Vocabulary  of  the  International   Code  require   to 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


193 


be  made  by  more  than  one  hoist,  which  involves  loss  of  time.  Ar- 
rangements have,  however,  been  adopted  by  which  many  important 
signals  can  be  made  by  one  hoist  only.  These  signals  are  called 
"Special  Distant  Signals,"  and  are  represented  by  numbers  as  ex- 
plained below,  and  not  by  letters. 

16.  The  Special  Distant  Signals  are  distinguished  from  Distant 
Signals  taken  from  the  .General  Vocabulary  of  the  Internationa] 
Code  by  the  fact  that  they  are  not  preceded  by  the  Code  Flag  Sign 
and  that  the  Stop  Signal  immediately  follows  the  single  hoist  rep- 
resenting the  particular  "Special  Distant  Signal"  which  is  being 
made. 

EXAMPLE  OF  A  SPECIAL  DISTANT  SIGNAL 

MADE   BY    SEMAPHORE   OR    DISTANT   SIGNALS. 


SPECIAL    DISTANT    SIGNALS. 
Made    by   a    Single    Hoist  followed    by   the    Stop    Signal.     Arranged 

Numerically  for  Reading  off  a   Signal. 

These  signals  may  be  made  by  semaphore,  by  cones,  balls,  and 
drums,  or  by  square  flags,  balls,  pennants,  and  whefts. 
Signal     2 — "Preparative,"  "Answering,"  or  "Stop,"  after  each  com- 
plete signal. 

12 — Aground;    want    immediate    assistance. 
21 — Fire,  or  leak;  want  immediate  assistance. 
22 — Annul    the    whole    signal. 

23 — You  are   running   into   danger;    or,    Your   course   is   dan- 
gerous. 

24 — Want    water    immediately. 
32 — Short  of  provisions;   starving. 
42 — Annul   the    last   hoist;    I   will   repeat   it. 
112 — I  am  on  fire. 
121 — I  am  aground. 
122— Yes,    or   affirmative. 
123 — No,   or   negative. 
124— Send    Lifeboat. 
132 — Do  not  abandon  the  vessel. 

142 — Do  not  abandon  the  vessel  till  the   tide  has  ebbed. 
211 — Assistance   is   coming. 
212 — Landing  is  impossible. 
213 — Bar  or  entrance  is  dangerous. 
214— Ship  disabled;  will  you  assist  me  into  port? 
221 — Want  a  pilot. 

223— Want  a  tug;   can  I  obtain  one? 
224 — Asks  the  name   of  ship    (or  signal   station)    in  sight;    or, 

show  your  distinguishing  signal. 
231 — Show  your  ensign. 


194  THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 

"     232 — Have  you  any  despatches  (message  orders,  or  telegrams) 

for   me? 

"     233 — Stop,    bring- to,    or   come   nearer;    I   have   something   im- 
portant to  communicate. 

234 — Repeat  signal,  or  hoist  it  in  a  more  conspicuous  position. 

241 — Cannot    distinguish    your    flags;    come    nearer,    or    make 
Distant  Signals. 

242 — Weigh,  cut,  or  slip;  wait  for  nothing;  get  an  offing. 

243 — Cyclone,    hurricane,    or    typhoon    expected. 

312 — Is  war  declared?       or,   Has  war  commenced? 

321 — War  is  declared;   or,   War  has  commenced. 

322 — Beware   of   torpedoes;   channel   is   mined. 

323 — Beware   of   torpedo   boats. 

324 — Enemy  is  in  sight. 

332 — Enemy  is  closing  with  you;  or,  You  are  closing  with  the 

enemy. 

"     342— Keep   a   good    look-out,    as    it    is   reported    that    enemy's 
men-of-war  are   going   about   disguised   as   merchant- 
men. 
'     412 — Proceed  on  your  voyage. 

significations  indicated. 


Short  of  provisions  j  Aground  ;  ?«» 

Starving.  immediate  assistance 

SEE    GENERAL    TABLE    FOR    SIGNAL    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FLASH  SIGNALS  WITH  LANTERN,  HELIOGRAPH,  OR  SEARCH 

LIGHT. 

Use  short  flash  for  "1,"  two  short  flashes  in  quick  succession 
for  "2,"  and  a  long  steady  flash  for  "3."  The  elements  of  a  letter 
should  be  slightly  longer  than  in  sound  signals. 

To  call  a  vessel,  make  the  initial  letter  of  her  name  until 
acknowledged.  Then  turn  on  a  steady  flash  until  answered  by  a 
steady  flash.  Then  proceed  with  the  message. 

All  other  conventional  signals  are  the  same  as  with  the  flag. 

SOUND  SIGNALS  WITH    FOG  WHISTLE,   FOG   HORN,  OR 
BUGLE. 

Use  one  toot  (about  half  second)  for  "1,"  two  toots  (in  quick 
succession)  for  "2,"  and  a  blast  (about  two  seconds'  long)  for  "3." 
The  ear  and  not  the  watch  is  to  be  relied  upon  for  the  intervals. 

The  signal  of  execution  for  all  tactical  or  drill  signals  will  be 
one  long  blast  followed  by  two  toots  in  quick  succession. 

In  the  use  of  any  other  appliance,  such  as  a  bell,  by  which  a 
blast  can  not  be  given,  three  strokes  in  quick  succession  will  be 
given  in  the  place  of  the  blast  to  indicate  "3." 

When  more  than  two  vessels  are  in  company,  each  vessel,  after 
making  "I  understand,"  should  make  her  call  letter  that  it  may 
be  certain  which  vessel  has  acknowledged. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


195 


UNITED   STATES   NAVY   SIGNAL,  CODE. 


A  2  2 
R  -,  2112 
C  121 
D                             222 

122    rt    

...,-        2  i    v    1222 

I,.  
I  • 

1122 

...1312 

W    ....  1121 

,.1211 

X  2122 

K  

2121 
*221 

R 

....       2  1  1 

Y  '  .    Ill 

E  1  2 
F                         2221 

g 

212 

Z  ..-      2  2  23 

M 

.     1221 

T  

2 

tion  1  112 

G     '                    2211 

M 

..           11 

U  ...,,, 

,,..       112 

22    9  1221 

1  111113  1 
2!  2  2  2  2  [4  ...,..-     2 

a  -  after     c  can 

NUMERA 

1121^           » 

LS 
1122 
2.2  1  1 

'IONS 

t  

7  1  5 
8  2  1 

.the  pur  

2-2Nl  |6  
ABBREVIA1 

ri     .  .   »  .      not 

110     ....  21  1  2 

..yo^r  1  wi  with 

r  .  *  are 

u    .  . 

.  you  I  w.......  word  |y  .yes 

,x  x  3     "  numerals  foUow  "  or  "  numerals  end." 
sig.  3.   "signature  follows.". 

CdNVENTIONAL    SIGNALS 


Repeat  after  (word). . . 
Repeat  lasr  word ;. ; . . 
Repeat  last  message. 
Move  a  little  to  right 
Move  a  little  to  left... 
Signal  faster 


..  121,121.8.22.8  (word) 

121.121.88 

121.121.121.338 
......  211.211.3 

221.221.8 

2212.8 


End  of  a  word." ......  3 

End  of  a  sentedce. ...... 33 

End  of  a  message _ 333 

Error 12;12.3 

Acknowledgement  or, -•*  I  understand"    22.22  3 

'Cease  signaling..  t ,  . . . ... .... 22.22.2Z343 

•Wait  a  moment. ...«: ^1111.3 

INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    USING   THE    SYSTEM. 

The  whole  number  opposite  each  letter  or  numeral  stands  for 
that  letter  or  numeral. 

TO    SEND   A    MESSAGE. 

"To  call"  a  vessel,  signal  the  initial  letter  of  her  name  until 
acknowledged.  To  acknowledge  a  call  or  receipt  of  a  message, 
signal  "I  understand." 

Make  a  slight  pause  after  each  letter  and  also  after  "front." 
If  the  sender  discovers  that  he  has  made  an  error,  he  should  make 
the  "front"  and  "12.12.3,"  after  which  he  proceeds  with  the  mes- 
sage, beginning  with  the  word  in  which  the  error  occurred. 
TO  SIGNAL  WITH  FLAG,  TORCH,  HAND  LANTERN,  OR  BEAM 
OF  SEARCH  LIGHT. 

There  are  but  one  position  and  three  motions. 

The  first  position  is  with  the  flag  or  other  appliance  held  ver- 
tically, the  signalman  facing  squarely  towards  the  person  to  whom 
he  is  signaling. 

In  the  first  motion,  "one"  or  "1,"  the  signal  is  waved  to  the 
right  of  the  sender  and  embraces  an  arc  of  90  degrees,  starting 
with  a  vertical  and  returning  to  it,  and  will  be  made  in  a  plane 
exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  line  connecting  the  two  stations. 

The  second  motion,  "two"  or  "2,"  is  a  similar  motion  to  the 
left  of  the  sender. 

To  make  the  third  motion,  "front"  or  "three"  or  "3,"  the  sig- 
nal is  waved  to  the  ground  directly  in  front  of  the  sender,  and  in- 
stantly returned  to  the  first  position. 

Numbers  which  occur  in  the  body  of  the  message  must  be 
spelled  out  in  full. 

To  use  the  torch  or  hand  lantern,  a  footlight  must  be  used  as  a 
point  of  reference  to  the  motion.  The  lantern  is  more  conveniently 
swung  out  upwards  by  hand,  from  the  footlight  for  "1"  and  "2" 
and  raised  vertically  for  "3." 


196 


THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 


WIG-WAG  SIGNAL  CODE. 

Signaling  by  wig-wag  is  carried  on  by  waving  in  certain  de- 
fined ways,  a  flag  fastened  to  a  staff,  represented  by  the  figures  1,  2 
and  3,  and  thus  letters  are  made  and  words  spelled. 

There  are  two  wig-wag  flags,  one  a  square  white  flag  with  a 
red  square  in  the  centre,  and  the  other  a  square  red  flag  with  a 
white  square  in  the  centre. 

But  one  flag  is  used  in  signaling,  and  that  one  is  selected  which 
can  be  easier  seen  against  the  flagman's  background. 


FIGURE  1 


FIGURE  2 


FIGURE  $ 


FLAG    WAVING. 


Instructions  for  Communicating  by  Flashing  Signals  with  a  Flag 
(Generally  Termed  Flag  Waving). 

The  system  used  is  the  Morse  Alphabet,  the  letters  being  made 
by  groups  of  Long  and  Short  flashes  caused  by  moving  a  flag 
through  a  long  or  short  arc,  as  described  below. 

The  signalman  may  work  from  left  to  right,  or  from  right  to 
left,  as  shown  in  figures  1  and  2,  according  to  convenience  and  di- 
rection of  the  wind. 

In  the  normal  position  (a)  in  the  above  figures,  the  flag  should 
make  an  angle  of  25  degrees  with  a  vertical  line  through  the  center 
of  the  body. 

The  pole  should  be  kept  high  enough  to  permit  seeing  under- 
neath the  flag  while  in  motion. 


FIGURE  1. 


FIGURE  2. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


BRITISH  WIG- WAG  SIGNALS. 


Alphabetic^ 
Signification 


Alphabetical 
Signification. 


Signification. 


M 


JL 


198         THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


HELP  IN  CASE  OF  ACCIDENTS 


GENERAL    DIRECTIONS    FOR    RENDERING    FIRST    AID. 


Be  calm  and  collected. 

In  any  case  don't  get  excited. 

Send  at  once  for  a  doctor,  telling  him  the  character  of  the  ill- 
ness or  injury. 

Give  the  patient  plenty  of  air.     Keep  the  crowd  back. 

The  best  position  for  the  patient  is  on  the  back  with  the  head 
low.  Never  raise  the  head  more  than  necessary  to  put  a  small 
pillow,  such  as  a  folded  coat,  under  it.  With  a  flushed  face  the 
head  may  be  raised  to  this  extent.  With  a  pale  face  it  should  not 
be  raised  at  all. 

If  the  patient  is  vomiting,  he  should  be  placed  on  his  side,  or 
his  head  turned  to  one  side,  so  that  the  matter  vomited  will  not 
go  into  his  windpipe  and  choke  him. 

Unconscious  patients  cannot  swallow,  therefore  never  try  to 
give  them  water  or  stimulants. 

Fainting.  Place  flat  on  back;  allow  fresh  air  and  sprinkle  with 
water.  Place  head  lower  than  rest  of  body. 

Tight  clothing  interferes  with  breathing  and  circulation.  Cloth- 
ing should  be  loosened  at  once.  If  necessary  to  remove  the  cloth- 
ing, slit  up  the  nearest  seam  in  the  outer  clothing  first  and  cut  or 
tear  the  under  clothing.  The  sound  side  should  be  undressed  first, 
so  that  the  injured  side  will  be  subject  to  less  moving.  When 
necessary  to  remove  boots  or  shoes  they  should  be  freely  cut. 

WOUNDS. — The  object  of  dressing  a  wound  is  to  keep  dirt  from 
getting  into  it.  For  this  purpose  First  Aid  Packages  containing  a 
clean  sterile  pad  of  absorbent  gauze  should  be  obtaine.d.  The  wrap- 
pings should  be  removed  and  the  pad  applied  over  the  wound  with- 
out touching-  the  fingers  either  to  the  pad  or  to  the  wound.  Open 
the  package,  take  hold  of  the  sterile  gauze  on  one  side,  place  the 
other  side,  which  has  not  been  touched,  against  the  wound  and 
bind  it  in  place. 

FRACTURES. — A  simple  fracture  is  where  the  bone  is  broken 
and  the  skin  is  whole.  The  object  of  treatment  of  a  fracture  is  to 
prevent  further  injury,  especially  puncture  of  the  skin  by  the  sharp 
edges  of  the  broken  bone.  If  this  occurs,  simple  fracture  is  con- 
verted into  a  compound  fracture — a  much  more  serious  condition. 
If  a  doctor  is  expected  soon,  support  the  broken  bone  by  pillows  or 
folded  coats,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  b«nt  at  the  point  of  frac- 
ture. The  patient  should  be  moved  as  little  as  possible.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  move  the  patient,  fasten  on  a  splint,  reaching  from 
well  above  the  site  of  the  break  to  well  below  it.  A  splint  can 
be  made  out  of  anything-  stiff — a  piece  of  board,  a  wire  gauze, 
branch  of  a  tree,  etc. 

A  broken  arm  should  be  supported  by  a  sling. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  199 

In  case  of  a  compound  fracture  the  wound  should  be  treated 
with  a  First  Aid  Dressing,  as  above,  and  then  the  fracture  should 
be  treated  as  detailed  under  Fractures. 

SPRAINS. — A  sprain  is  an  injury  to  a  joint,  with  laceration  of 
its  ligaments.  An  elastic  bandage  should  be  applied  as  soon  as 
possible. 

Hemorrhage.  The  usual  treatment  is  rest  in  the  recumbent 
position;  small  pieces  of  ice  should  be  freely  swallowed,  and  the 
application  of  ice  wrapped  in  a  towel,  or  in  an  ice-bag,  or  snow, 
cold  water,  etc.,  over  the  stomach;  hot  applications  may  be  applied 
to  the  extremities. 

HEMORRHAGE  OR  BLEEDING.— Bleeding  from  a  wound  can 
usually  be  controlled  by  pressure  applied  directly  to  the  wound. 
The  pad  in  a  First  Aid  Package,  therefore,  can  be  bound  tightly 
over  the  injured  place.  If  the  bleeding  is  excessive  and  the  blood 
comes  in  spurts,  it  can  be  controlled  by  a  tourniquet  of  rubber 
tubing,  or  even  a  twisted  handkerchief,  placed  nearer  to  the  heart 
than  to  the  injury,  and  pulled  as  tight  as  possible  about  the  limb. 
If  the  bleeding  continues  the  tourniquet  is  not  tight  enough.  Un- 
less the  patient  is  hours  away  from  a  doctor,  the  tourniquet  may 
be  left  in  place  until  the  doctor  arrives. 

CONVULSIONS.— Place  anything  hard  between  the  teeth  to 
prevent  biting  of  the  tongue  (a  piece  of  wood,  a  jack-knife,  or  a 
handkerchief  rolled  up).  Lay  the  patient  down.  Loosen  clothing, 
particularly  about  the  neck  and  waist.  Do  not  attempt  to  move 
patient  for  some  time  after  convulsion. 

TREATMENT    OF     FROST-BITE. 


Frost-bite  is  the  result  of  exposure  to  severe  cold.  The  vital- 
ity of  the  part  affected  is  reduced  to  a  very  low  point,  loses  its 
natural  color,  and  becomes  blue  or  purple. 

TREATMENT. — Bring  about  reaction  gradually  by  friction. 
Place  the  patient  in  a  room  without  a  fire,  and  avoid  heat.  Rub  the 
part  with  snow  or  other  cold  application,  and  administer  brandy  and 
water  carefully  in  small  quantities.  If  a  person  is  found  insensible 
from  cold,  he  must  be  kept  away  from  the  heat.  Remove  the 
clothing,  and  rub  thoroughly  with  snow  or  cloths  wrung  put  in  cold 
water  Continue  the  friction,  especialy  to  the  extremities,  until 
signs  of  recovery  appear.  Artificial  respiration  may  be  necessary. 
Give  brandy  and  beef  tea  in  small  quantities. 


INTOXICATION. 


Notice  the  odor  of  the  breath.  Lay  the  individual  on  his  side 
on  a  bed,  with  his  head  raised.  The  patient  should  be  induced  to 
vomit.  Stimulants  should  be  avoided.' 


APOPLEXY. 


Cold  should  be  applied  to  the  head,  which  should  be  kept  well 
raised.  Clothing  removed  from  the  neck  and  chest.  Stimulants 
avoided. 


200  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

SUNSTROKE. 


Sunstroke.  Loosen  clothing.  Get  patient  into  shade  and  apply 
ice-cold  water  to  head.  Keep  head  in  elevated  position. 

Ice  should  be  applied  freely  to  the  head,  and  the  body  may  also 
be  bathed  in  cold  water  until  the  fever  subsides. 


Burns  and  Scalds.  Cover  with  cooking  soda,  and  lay  wet  cloths 
over  it.  Whites  of  eggs  and  olive  oil.  Olive  oil  or  linseed  oil,  plain 
or  mixed  with  chalk  and  whiting.  Sweet  or  olive  oil  and  lime 
water. 


FIRE. 

1.  Send  for  medical  aid;  let  the  sufferer  be  put  to  bed  as  quick- 
ly as   possible;    remove   all   remains   of   clothing   about   the    injured 
parts,  cutting  with  extreme  caution,  as  it  is  of  the  first  importance 
to  avoid  tearing  the  skin  or  breaking  a  blister.     If  this  is  not  at- 
tended to,  the  future  danger  will  be  greatly  aggravated.     If  possi- 
ble to  avoid  it,   the  water  must  not  be  let  out  of  the  blister. 

2.  As  the  readiest  thing  at  hand,   cover  all  the   injured   parts 
tenderly  with   clean   cotton   or  wool,   what   is   commonly   known   as 
wadding;   the  cleaner  and  purer,   the  better   (the  best  for  the  pur- 
pose is  kept  by  druggists).     It  relieves  by  excluding  the  air.     Linen 
rag,  soaked  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  lime-water  and  linseed 
oil,    also    forms    a    good    dressing.     Common    whiting    is    also    very 
good,  applied  wet  and  continually  damped  with  a  sponge. 

3.  It   is   better   to   avoid    cold    applications;    they   certainly   al- 
lay pain,  but,  unless  the  cold  be  maintained,   the  momentary  relief 
is  followed  by  a  considerable  aggravation  of  the  suffering.     In  ex- 
tensive   burns,    moreover,    cold    water    freely    applied    is    not    unat- 
tended  by  danger. 

4.  From  thirty-six  to  fifty  hours  after  the   injury  the  blisters 
will  present  a  milky  appearance,  and  show  surrounding  inflamma- 
tion; when  this  is  the  case,  they  may  be  opened  with  the  point  of 
a  large  needle.     Dressing  for  burns  may  then  be  simple  wax  and  oil 
spread   on    lint;    but   so   much   depends   on    circumstances   and    the 
state  of  health  of  the  sufferer,  that  it  is  desirable  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible to  secure  medical  attendance. 

5.  To  recover  a  person  in  a  state  of  insensibility  from  the  ef- 
fect of  smoke,  dash  cold  water  in  the  face,  or  cold  and  hot  water  al- 
ternately.    Should   this   fail,    turn   him   on   his   face,    with   his   arms 
folded    under    his    forehead.     Apply    pressure    along    the    back    and 
ribs,  and  turn  the  body  gradually  on  the  side,  then  again  slowly  on 
the  face,  repeating  the  pressure  on  the  back.     Persevere  with  these 
alternate  rolling  movements  about  sixteen  times  in  a  minute,  until 
respiration   is   restored.     A  warm   bath   will   now   complete   the   re- 
covery. 

Fire  in  a  Building.  Crawl  on  the  floor.  The  clearest  air  is  the 
lowest  in  the  room.  Cover  head  with  woolen  wrap,  wet  if  possible. 
Cut  holes  for  the  eyes. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINA     MANUAL 201 

POISONING. 

In  all  cases  of  poisoning,  first  empty  the  stomach  by  giving 
large  drinks  of  warm  water,  with  a  tablespoonful  of  mustard  or 
salt  to  a  pint;  or  by  tickling  the  throat  with  your  finger  or  a  feather. 

If  the  poison  taken  is  Opium,  Laudanum  or  Morphine — which 
'kill  by  putting  the  patient  to  sleep— keep  him  awake  by  walking  him 
around,  slapping  him,  rubbing  him,  etc.  Give  strong  coffee  until 
the  doctor  comes. 

If  the  poison  is  of  an  irritating  nature,  as  Arsenic,  Rough  on 
Rats,  Corrosive  Sublimate,  Carbolic  Acid — give  large  drinks  of 
milk,  flour  and  water,  or  whites  of  eggs,  or  sweet  or  olive  oil. 

If  the  poison  is  strong  acid,  as  Sulphuric  or  Nitric  Acid,  scrape 
plaster  from  the  wall  and  make  lime-water  of  it,  and  make  the 
patient  drink  that,  in  addition  to  the  whites  of  eggs  or  milk,  etc., 
spoken  of  before. 

If  the  poison  is  Caustic  Potash,  give  lemon  juice  or  vinegar. 


GAS    POISONING. 


Turn  off  the  gas.  Open  the  windows.  Bring  the  patient  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  window  or  into  the  open  air.  If  the  pa- 
tient does  not  breathe  begin  artificial  respiration.  In  extreme  cases 
the  administration  of  oxygen,  if  available,  is  of  service. 


Drowning.  1.  Loosen  the  clothing,  if  any.  2.  Empty  lungs  of 
water  by  laying  body  on  its  stomach  and  lifting  it  by  the  middle 
so  that  the  head  hangs  down.  Jerk  the  body  a  few  times.  3.  Pull 
the  tongue  forward,  using  handkerchief,  or  pin  with  string,  if 
necessary.  4.  Imitate  motion  of  respiration  by  alternately  com- 
pressing and  expanding  the  lower  ribs  about  twenty  times  a  min- 
ute. Alternately  raising  and  lowering  the  arms  from  the  sides  up 
above  the  head  will  stimulate  the  action  of  the  lungs.  Let  it  be 
done  gently,  but  persistently.  5.  Apply  warmth  and  friction  to 
extremities.  6.  By  holding  tongue  forward,  closing  the  nostrils 
and  pressing  the  "Adam's  apple"  back  (thus  closing  entrance  to 
stomach),  direct  inflation  may  be  tried.  Take  a  deep  breath  and 
breathe  it  forcibly  into  the  mouth  of  patient,  compress  the  chest 
to  expel  the  air,  and  repeat  the  operation. 

7.  DON'T  GIVE  UP!  People  have  been  saved  after  HOURS 
of  patient,  vigorous  effort.  8.  When  breathing  begins,  get  patient 
into  warm  bed,  give  WARM  drinks,  or  spirits  in  teaspoonfuls,  fresh 
air  and  quiet. 

APPEARANCES    WHICH    GENERALLY    INDICATE    DEATH. 


There  is  no  breathing  nor  heart's  action;  the  eyelids  are  gen- 
erally half-closed;  the  pupils  dilated;  the  jaws  clenched;  the  fingers 
semi-contracted;  the  tongue  appearing  between  the  teeth,  and  the 
mouth  and  nostrils  are  covered  with  a  froth.  The  skin  of  the  arms 
and  thighs  shows  the  appearance  known  as  goose-flesh.  Coldness 
and  pallor  of  surface  increase. 

The  treatment  recommended  by  the  Society  is  to  be  persevered 
in  for  three  or  four  hours.  It  is  an  erroneous  opinion  that  persons 
are  irrecoverable  because  life  does  not  soon  make  its  appearance, 
as  cases  have  had  a  successful  result  even  after  five  hours'  per- 
severance; and  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  a  body  must  not  be 
meddled  with  or  removed  without  permission  of  a  coroner  or  medical 
examiner. 


202 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


DIRECTIONS 

FOR  RESCUING  DROWNING  PERSONS. 


THE    BEST    METHOD    WHEN    THERE    IS    NO   STRUGGLING. 

Provided  the  drowning  person  does  not  struggle/  turn  him  on 
his  back,  place  your  hands  on  either  side  of  his  face.  Then  turn 
on  your  back,  hold  him  in  front  of  you,  and  swim  with  the  back 
stroke,  taking  care  to  keep  his  face  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Remember  that  it  is  most  important  to  keep  the  face  of  the 
drowning  person  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  Avoid  all  jerk- 
ing, struggling  or  tugging,  but  swim  with  a  regular,  well-timed 
kick  of  the  legs,  husbanding  the  strength  for  continued  effort. 


.THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


203 


THE    BEST    METHOD    FOR    ONE    WHO    STRUGGLES. 


"When  the  drowning  person  is  struggling,  and  difficult  to  man- 
age, turn  him  on  his  back,  and  take  a  firm  hold  of  his  arms  just 
above  the  elbows.  Draw  the  arms  upward  at  right  angles  to  the 
body  and  swim  with  the  back  stroke.  This  hold  will  put  the 
drowning  person  under  the  control  of  the  rescuer,  who  can  pre- 
vent him  from  turning  round  or  clutching. 


When  carrying  a  struggling  person  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
it  will  be  of  advantage  to  keep  the  elbows  well  out  from  the  sides, 
as  this  expands  the  chest,  inflates  the  lungs  and  adds  to  his  buoy- 
ancy. The  legs  should  be  kept  well  up  to  the  surface,  the  body 
being  as  horizontal  as  possible. 


204 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


THE  BEST  METHOD  FOR  ONE  WHO  STRUGGLES  VIOLENTLY. 


If  the  arms  be  difficult  to  grasp  or  the  struggling  so  violent  as 
to  prevent  a  firm  hold,  slip  your  hands  under  the  armpits  of  the 
drowning  person  and  place  them  on  his  chest  or  round  his  arms. 
Raise  them  at  right  angles  to  the  body,  thus  placing  the  drowning 
person  completely  in  your,  power.  Then  turn  on  your  back  and 
swim  with  the  back  stroke. 


Rescuers  should  at  all  times  be  governed  by  circumstances, 
using  their  judgment  which  method  to  adopt  in  conveying  the 
drowning  person  to  shore,  taking  care  to  avoid  wasting  their 
strength  hopelessly  against  tide  or  stream — always  float  or  swim 
with  it  and  gradually  make  for  shore,  or  wait  until  a  boat  or  other 
help  arrives. 


'MERCHANT    MARINA    MANUAL 


205 


HOW  TO  EFFECT  A  RELEASE  IF  CLUTCHED. 


^ 


IF  CLUTCHED  BY  THE  WRISTS. 


If  the  rescuer  be  held  by  the  wrists,  turn  both  arms  simultan- 
eously against  the  drowning  person's  thumbs,  outward,  and  bring 
the  arms  at  right  angles  to  the  body,  thus  dislocating  the  thumbs 
of  the  drowning  person  if  he  does  not  let  go. 


206 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MA'NUAL 


IF   CLUTCHED    ROUND    THE    NECK. 


If  clutched  round  the  neck,  take  a  deep  breath,  lean  well  over 
the  drownmg  person,  immediately  place  one  hand  in  the  small  of 
his  back  and  pass  the  other  over  on  to  his  face;  with  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  pinch  the  nostrils  close,  at  the  same  time  place 
the  palm  of  the  hand  on  the  chin  and  push  away  with  all  force 
possible. 


THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 


207 


HOW    TO    HELP    IN    CASE    OF    CRAMP,    ETC. 


An  easy  method  of  assisting  a  tired  swimmer  or  one  attacked 
by  cramp,  as  well  as  others  who  may  be  cmiet.  The  person  being 
assisted  must  place  both  hands  on  the  shoulders  of  the  rescuer  with 
the  arms  at  full  stretch,  and  lie  upon  the  back.  The  rescuer  being 
uppermost,  and  having  arms  and  legs  free,  swims  with  the  breast 
stroke. 


(The  foregoing  directions  are  copied  from  the  Handbook  of  Instruc- 
tions of  the  Royal   Lite  vSaving  Society. ) 


208 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


DIRECTIONS 


FOR  RESTORING  PERSONS  APPARENTLY  DEAD  FROM 
DROWNING. 


Fig.  1. 


RULE  1.  Unless  in  extreme  cold  weather,  when  there  may  be 
danger  of  freezing,  do  not  move  the  patient,  but  instantly  expose 
the  face  to  a  current  of  cold  air,  wipe  dry  the  mouth  and  nostrils, 
rip  the  clothing  so  as  to  expose  the  chest  and  waist,  and  give  two 
or  three  quick  smarting  slaps  on  the  stomach  and  chest  with  the 
open  hand.  If  the  patient  does  not  revive,  proceed  at  once  as  fol- 
lows: 

RULE  2.  TO  DRAW  OFF  THE  WATER  FROM  THE  STOM- 
ACH AND  LUNGS.— Turn  the  patient  on  his  face,  place  a  large 
roll  of  clothing  beneath  the  stomach  and  press  heavily  on  the 
back  and  spine  over  it  for  half  a  minute,  or  so  long  as  fluids  flow 
freely  from  the  mouth.  (Fig.  1.) 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


209 


Fig.  2* 


RULE  3.  TO  PRODUCE  RESPIRATION.— If  no  assistance  is 
at  hand  and  you  must  work  alone,  place  the  patient  on  his  back 
with  the  shoulders  slightly  raised  on  a  folded  article  of  clothing. 
Draw  forward  the  tongue  and  keep  it  projecting  beyond  the  lips. 
If  the  lower  jaw  be  raised,  the  teeth  may  be  made  to  hold  the 
tongue  in  place;  it  may  be  necessary  to  retain  the  tongue  by  tying 
a  handkerchief  under  the  chin  and  over  the  head.  Grasp  the  arms 
just  below  the  elbows,  and  draw  them  steadily  upward  until  they 
nearly  m-eet  above  the  head.  (This  enlarges  the  capacity  of  the 
chest  and  induces  inspiration.)  (Pig.  2.)  Next,  lower  the  arms 
to  the  side,  and  press  firmly  downward  and  inward  and  backward 
on  the  sides  and  front  of  the  chest,  over  lower  ribs  and  sternum. 
(This  produces  expiration.)  (Fig.  3.) 

Repeat  these  measures  deliberately  and  perseveringly  twelve  to 
fifteen  times  in  every  minute.  Occasionally  rub  the  limbs  upward 
from  the  extremities  toward  the  heart,  and  dash  cold  water  in  the 
face. 


Fig.  3. 


210 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


Fig.  4. 


RULE  4.  If  an  assistant  is  at  hand,  and  two  can  work  to- 
gether, have  one  kneel  at  the  patient's  head  and  one  astride  the 
hips  of  the  patient  facing  the  patient's  face.  (Fig.  4.)  Proceed  as 
given  above,  save  that  when  the  operator  at  the  head  lowers  the 
arms  to  .the  sides,  the  second  operator  presses  on  the  sides  and 
front  of  the  chest  backwards  and  downwards,  throwing  all  his 
weight  into  it.  (Fig.  5.)  The  method  followed  by  two  workers  is 
the  same  as  that  by  one,  save  that  the  second  operator  applies 
the  pressure  on  the  chest,  and  during  the  time  the  arms  are  being 
raised  applies  friction  and  warmth  to  the  body. 

RULE  5.  Send  for  medical  aid,  stimulants  and  warm  blankets 
and  clothing  as  soon  as  possible. 

RULE  6.  Keep  up  the  efforts  for  fully  two  hours,  or  until 
the  patient  breathes. 

RULE  7.  Practice  drying  and  rubbing  from  the  beginning  in 
so  far  as  possible  without  interfering  with  the  movements  of  arti- 
ficial respiration. 


Fig.  5. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 


211 


RULE  8.  AFTER-TREATMENT. — As  soon  as  the  breathing  is 
established,  have  the  patient  stripped  of  all  wet  clothing,  wrapped 
in  blankets  only,  put  to  bed  comfortably  warm  but  with  a  free 
circulation  of  fresh  air,  and  left  to  perfect  rest.  Give  a  little 
brandy,  hot  water  or  other  stimulant  at  hand,  internally,  every  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  for  the  first  hour,  and  as  often  after  as  neces- 
sary. 

(The  foregoing  directions  are  copied  from  chart  issued  by  The 
Humane  Society  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts.) 


THE   SCHAFER    PRONE    PRESSURE    METHOD    OF  ARTIFICIAL 
RESPIRATION. 


The  following  new  method  of  resuscitation  is  added  to  the 
older  methods  which  precede,  on  account  of  its  alleged  efficacy  and 
its  apparent  greater  simplicity.  It  requires  only  one  operator. 

The  most  important  of  the  principles  concerned  in  any  method 
of  artificial  respiration  is  the  elasticity  of  the  lungs  and  thorax. 
The  more  effectually  this  is  brought  into  play  the  better  the  method 
of  artificial  respiration,  other  things  being  equal.  This  method  is 
considered  to  be  better  than  the  former  methods  and  is  known  as 
the  Prone  Pressure  Method. 


Fig.   1 

FIG.    1. — First    position    of   operator    and    patient    for    effecting 
'  artificial  respiration  by  the  "prone  pressure  method"   described  by 
Professor  Schafer.     The  operator's  hands  are  over  the  lowest  ribs 
of  the  patient. 


212 


THE      MERCHANT      MARINE      MANUAL 


The  patient  lies  prone  on  the  abdomen,  with  the  face  turned 
to  one  side  and  the  mouth  clear.  The  operator  kneels  or  squats  by 
the  side  or  opposite  the  patient,  places  his  hands  over  the  lowest 
ribs  and  sways  his  body  forward  and  backward  so  as  to  allow  his 
weight  alternately  to  fall  vertically  on  the  wrists  and  to  be  re- 
moved. Hardly  any  muscular  exertion  is  required.  The  pressure 
is  exerted  gradually  and  slowly,  occupying-  about  three  seconds.  It 
is  then  removed  during  two  seconds,  and  again  applied,  and  so  on, 
about  twelve  times  a  minute.  In  this  way  an  air  exchange  of 
6,000  c.  c.,  which  is  more  than  the  average  normal  amount,  is 
usually  obtained.  The  positions  of  relaxation  and  of  pressure  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cuts.  The  advantages  claimed  for  this 
method  are:  (1)  That  it  is  fully  efficient;  (2)  that  it  can  be  per- 
formed without  fatigue  by  a  single  individual;  (3)  that  it  is  simple 
and  easily  learned;  (4)  that  it  allows  the  tongue  to  fall  forward 
and  the  mucus  and  water  to  escape  from  the  mouth  so  that  the 
tendency  of  these  to  block  the  passage  of  air,  which  is  inherent 
to  the  supine  position,  is  altogether  obviated. 


Fig.  2 


FIG.  2. — Second  position  of  operator,  who  is  throwing  his 
weight  vertically  on  his  wrists,  thus  putting  pressure  on  the  thorax 
and  abdomen  of  the  patient.  This  pressure  is  exerted  slowly,  oc- 
cupying some  three  seconds  and  is  then  removed  for  a  period  of 
two  seconds  and  again  applied. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 


213 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    THE    USE    OF    THE    GUN   AND 

ROCKET   APPARATUS    FOR    SAVING    LIFE    FROM 

SHIPWRECK  AS  PRACTICED  BY  THE 

UNITED  STATES  COAST  GUARD. 


If  your  vessel  is  stranded  and  a  shot  with  a  small  line  is  fired 
over  it,  get  hold  of  the  line  and  haul  on  board  until  you  get  a  tail- 
block  with  an  endless  line  rove  through  it;  make  the  tailblock 
fast  to  the  lower  mast,  well  up,  or  in  the  event  the  masts  are 
gone,  to  the  best  place  to  be  found;  cast  off  small  shot  line,  see 
that  rope  in  block  runs  free,  and  make  a  signal  to  shore. 
(Figure  1.) 

A  hawser  will  be  bent  to  the  endless  line  on  shore  and  hauled 
off  to  your  ship  by  the  life-saving  crew.  Make  hawser  fast  about 
two  feet  above  the  tailblock  and  unbend  hawser  from  endless  line. 
See  that  rope  in  block  runs  free  and  show  signal  to  shore. 
(Figure  2.) 

Life-savers  on  shore  will  then  set  hawser  taut  and  by  means 
of  the  endless  line  haul  off  to  your  ship  a  breeches  buoy. 
(Figure  3.) 


Figure  1 


Finite  2 


Figure  3 


Let  one  man  get  clear  into  breeches  buoy,  thrusting  his  legs 
through  the  breeches;  make  signal  to  shore  as  before,  and  he  will 
be  hauled  ashore  by  the  life-savers  and  the  empty  buoy  returned 
to  the  ship. 

There  should  be  on  board  every  vessel  a  copy  of  detailed  In- 
structions to  Mariners  in  Case  of  Shipwreck,  including  wreck  sig- 
nals, etc.,  issued  by  the  United  States  Coast  Guard.  A  copy  of 
the  instructions  may  be  secured  by  masters  of  vessels  upon  re- 
quest addressed  to  the  Captain  Commandant,  United  States  Coast 
Guard,  Washington,  D.  C. 


214  THE    MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL 

INTRODUCTION   TO   REGULATIONS   OF  THE    UNITED  STATES 

STEAMBOAT     INSPECTION     SERVICE     GOVERNING 

THE   ISSUANCE  OF  OCEAN  AND  COAST- 

WISE     LICENSES. 


Opportunities  open  to  American  citizens  for  advancement  in  the 
world's  best  paid  Merchant  Marine  will  be  many  times  greater, 
from  now  on,  than  ever  before. 

Competent  American  officers  and  seamen  are  required  not  mere- 
ly for  the  duration  of  the  war,  but  there  will  be  positions  for  them 
in  all  the  years  to  follow  the  war,  for  the  United  States  will  build 
and  maintain  a  merchant  marine  in  keeping  with  its  position  as  a 
maritime  nation. 

The  present  time  marks  only  the  beginning  of  a  new  and  im- 
portant era  in  the  American  Merchant  Marine,  an  era  in  which 
every  man  now  being  trained  for  the  occupation  of  a  seaman 
is  destined  to  play  his  part. 

The  Government,  through  the  Shipping  Board,  stands  willing 
and  anxious  to  train  for  advancement  in  its  Merchant  Marine 
every  American  seaman  who  will  qualify  himself  for  advancement. 

Never  before  has  the  rapid  advancement  of  competent  American 
seamen  depended  almost  wholly  on  their  own  willingness  to  advance 
in  a  profession  that  is  at  once,  romantic,  honorable,  profitable,  and 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  our  country  in  war-time 
and  in  peace. 

To  encourage  Americans  to  take  to  the  sea  and  eventually  rise 
to  positions  of  responsibility  in  the  Merchant  Marine,  the  United 
States  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  has  made  provisions  in  its 
General  Rules  and  Regulations  whereby  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a 
license  with  a  minimum  'amount  of  experience,  less  by  far  than 
is  required  by  other  maritime  nations.  These  rules  are  incorpor- 
ated in  the  Manual  in  order  that  interest  may  be  aroused  and  the 
spur  of  ambition  create  the  desire  for  promotion. 


SUBSTITUTING    SERVICE    IN    NEXT    LOWER    GRADE 
FOR  RAISE  OF  GRADE 


20.  Except  as  hereinafter  provided,  an  applicant  who  has 
served  in  a  lower  grade  than  that  for  which  he  is  licensed  may 
substitute  service  in  the  grade  next  below  that  for  which  he  is 
licensed,  which  service  shall  count  one-half  in  computing  exper- 
ience for  raise  of  grade.  For  example,  if  an  applicant  holds  chief 
mate's  license  and  has  served  9  months  as  chief  mate  and  6 
months  as  second  mate,  the  6  months'  service  as  second  mate  shall 
count  as  3  months  as  chief  mate  in  computing  experience. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  215 

AMENDMENTS  OF  ALL  CLASSES  OF  GENERAL  RULES 
AND  REGULATIONS. 


MASTER  OF  OCEAN  STEAM   VESSELS 

21.  An   applicant   for   license   as   master   of   ocean   steam   ves- 
sels shall  be   eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  furnished  sat- 
isfactory   documentary    evidence    to    the    local    inspectors    that    he 
has  had  the  following"  experience: 

First.  One  year's  service  as  chief  mate  of  ocean  steam  ves- 
sels, or 

Second.  Two  years'  service  as  second  mate  of  ocean  steam 
vessels,  one  year  of  such  service  while  holding  a  license  as  chief 
mate  of  ocean  steam  vessels,  or 

Third.  Two  years'  service  as  watch  officers  actually  in  charge 
of  a  bridge  watch  on  ocean  steam  vessels,  while  holding  a  license 
as  chief  mate  of  ocean  steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  Five  years'  service  as  third  mate  of  ocean  steam  ves- 
sels, two  years  of  such  service  while  holding  a  license  as  chief 
mate  of  ocean  steam  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  Five  years'  service  on  ocean  sail  vessels  of  300  gross 
tons  or  over,  two  years  of  such  service  while  holding  a  license  as 
master  of  sail  vessels,  or 

Sixth.  One  year's  service  as  master  or  chief  mate  of  coast- 
wise steam  vessels. 

Examination  for  Master  of  Ocean  Steam  Vessels 

22.  An  applicant  for  license  as  master  of  ocean  steam  vessels 
shall  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  as   to  his  knoweldge   of   the 
following  subjects: 

1.  Latitude   by  meridian   altitude   of  the  sun. 

2.  Latitude  by  ex-meridian  altitude  of  the  sun. 

3.  Latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  a  star. 

4.  Latitude  by  pole  star. 

5.  Longitude   by  chronometer    (a.   m.    and   p.    m.) 

6.  Position   by   Sumner's   method. 

7.  Day's  work. 

8.  .  Mercator's    sailing. 

9.  Deviation  of  the  compass  by  an  amplitude. 

10.  Deviation  of  the  compass  by  an  azimuth. 

11.  Time  of  high  water  at  a  given  port. 

12.  Chart    navigation. 

13.  Storm    signals. 

14.  International  code  of  signals. 

15.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

16.  Use   of   gun   and   rocket   apparatus   for   saving   life 

from  shipwreck,  as  practiced  by  the  United  States 
Coast   Guard. 

17.  Such   further   examination   of   a   non -mathematical 

character  as  the  local  inspectors  may  require. 


216  THE    MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL 

MASTERS  OF  COASTWISE  STEAM  VESSELS 

23.  An  applicant  for  license  as  master  of  coastwise  steam  ves- 
sels shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  furnished  satis- 
factory documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors  that  he  has 
had  the   following  experience: 

First.  One  year's  service  as  chief  mate  of  ocean  or  coastwise 
steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  Two  years'  service  as  second  mate  of  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels,  one  year  of  such  service  while  holding  a 
license  as  chief  mate  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Third.  Five  years'  service  as  third  mate  of  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels,  two  years  of  such  service  while  holding  a 
license  as  chief  mate  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  One  year's  service  as  master  of  lake,  bay,  or  sound 
steam  vessels  and  in  addition  thereto  one  year's  service  as  second 
mate,  third  mate,  quartermaster  or  wheelsman  on  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels  while  holding  a  license  as  master  of  lake,  bay, 
or  sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  Five  years'  service  on  ocean  or  coastwise  sail  vessels 
of  300  gross  tons  or  over,  two  years  of  which  service  shall  have 
been  as  master,  or 

Sixth.  One  year's  service  as  a  licensed  master  of  ocean  or 
coastwise  sail  vessels  of  700  gross  tons  or  over,  or 

Seventh.  Two  years'  service  as  master  of  lake,  bay,  or  sound 
towing  steam  vessels  for  license  as  master  of  coastwise  towing 
steam  vessels  of  300  gross  tons  or  under. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
master  of  coastwise  steam  vessels  does  not  meet  the  specific  re- 
quirements of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  inspectors 
consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  accepted  by  them 
in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

Examination  for   Master   of  Coastwise  Steam  Vessels 

24.  An  applicant  for  license  as  master  of  coastwise  steam  ves- 
sels on  routes  exceeding  300  miles  shall  pass  a  satisfactory  exam- 
ination as  to  his  knowledge  of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  Latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun. 

2.  Latitude  by  pole  star. 

3.  Day's   work. 

4.  Determination   of  distance  from   a  fixed  object. 

5.  Chart   navigation. 

6.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

7.  Storm    signals. 

8.  Use   of  gun  and   rocket  apparatus   for   saving   life 

from     shipwreck,     as    practiced     by     the     United 
States  Coast  Guard. 

9.  Such   further   examination   of  a  non-mathematical 

character  as  the  local  inspectors  may  require. 
An  applicant  for  license  as  master  of  coastwise  steam  vessels 
on  routes  not  exceeding  300  miles  shall  pass  a  satifactory  exami- 
nation as  to  his  knowledge  of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  Chart   navigation. 

2.  Aids  to  navigation  on  route. 

3.  Determination  of  distance  from  a  fixed  object. 

4.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

5.  Storm  signals. 

6.  Such   further   examination   of  a  non-mathematical 

character  as  the  local  inspectors  may  require. 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  217 

MASTERS   OF   SAIL   VESSELS 

25.  An  applicant  for  license  as  master  of  sail  vessels  of  over 
700  gross  tons   shall   be   eligible  for  examination   after  he   has   fur- 
nished  satisfactory   documentary   evidence    to    the    local   inspectors 
that   he   has   had   the   following   experience: 

First.  Five  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  sail  ves- 
sels of  200  gross  tons  or  over,  one  year  of  such  service  shall  have 
been  as  master  of  sail  vessels  of  500  gross  tons  or  over,  or 

Second.  Two  years'  service  as  master  of  sail  vessels  of  200 
gross  tons  or  over,  or 

Third.  Two  years'  service  as  mate  of  sail  vessels  of  500  gross 
tons  or  -over,  or 

Fourth.  Two  years'  service  as  master  ef  auxiliary  sail  ves- 
sels of  100  gross  tons  or  over. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
master  of  sail  vessels  does  not  meet  the  specific  requirements  of 
this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  inspectors  consider  a 
fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  accepted  by  them  in  lieu 
of  the  service  herein  specified. 

Examination  for  License  as  Master  of  Sail  Vessels; 

26.  An   applicant    for   license    as   master   of   sail   vessels    shall 
pass   a  satisfactory  examination   as   to  his   knowledge   of   the   fol- 
lowing subjects: 

1.  Latitude  by   meridian   altitude    of   the   sun. 

2.  Latitude  by  pole  star. 

3.  Longitude   by  chronometer    (a.   m.    and   p.    m.). 

4.  Day's  work. 

5.  Mercator's  sailing. 

6.  Deviation  of  tne  compass  by  an  amplitude. 

7.  Deviation  of  the  compass  by  an  azimuth. 

8.  Chart   navigation. 

9.  International  code  of  signals. 

10.  Storm    signals. 

11.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

12.  Use   of   gun   and   rocket   apparatus   for   saving   life 

from  shipwreck,   as  practiced  by  the  U.   S.  Coast 
Guard. 

13.  Such   further   examination   of  a   non-mathematical 

character  as  the  local  inspectors  may  require. 


CHIEF  MATE  OF  OCEAN  STEAM  VESSELS 

27.  An  applicant  for  license  as  chief  mate  of  ocean  steam 
vessels  shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  furnished  sat- 
isfactory documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors  that  he 
has  had  the  following  experience: 

First.  One  year's  service  as  a  licensed  second  mate  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  Two  years'  service  as  watch  officer  on  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels,  while  holding  license  as  second  mate  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Third.  Two  years'  service  as  third  mate  of  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels,  one  year  of  such  service  while  holding  a 
license  as  second  mate  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 


218  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

Fourth.  Two  years'  service  as  master  of  lake,  bay,  or  sound 
steam  vessels  of  1,000  gross  tons  or  over,  or 

Fifth.  Five  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean  or 
coastwise  sail  vessels  of  200  gross  tons  or  over,  two  years  of 
which  service  as  chief  mate  of  such  ocean  or  coastwise  sail  ves- 
els,  or 

Sixth.  Two  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  steam 
vessels  engaged  in  the  ocean  or  coastwise  fisheries,  one  year  of 
such  service  to  have  been  as  master  of  such  vessels,  or 

Seventh.  Five  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  sail 
vessels  engaged  in  the  ocean  or  coastwise  fisheries,  two  years  of 
such  service  to  have  been  as  master  of  such  vessels. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
chief  mate  of  ocean  steam  vessels  does  not  meet  the  specific  re- 
quirements of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  inspectors 
consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  accepted  by  them 
in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

SECOND   MATE   OF   OCEAN   STEAM   VESSELS 

28.  An  applicant  for  license  as  second  mate  of  ocean  steam 
vessels  shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  shall  have  fur- 
nished satisfactory  documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors 
that  he  has  had  the  following  experience: 

First.  One  year's  service  as  third  mate  of  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  Three  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  one  year  of  such  service  shall  have 
been  as  watch  officer  or  quartermaster  on  such  vessels,  or 

Third.  A  graduate  from  the  seamanship  class  of  a  nautical 
school  ship  together  with  three  months'  service  in  the  deck  de- 
partment of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  Three  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  sail  vessels  of  200  gross  tons  or  over,  one  year  of 
such  service  shall  have  been  as  second  mate  of  such  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  One  year's  service  as  quartermaster  of  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels  while  holding  a  license  as  third  mate  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Sixth.  Three  years'  service  as  a  seaman  in  the  deck  depart- 
ment of  ocean  or  coastwise  sail  vessels  together  with  one  year  s 
service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels, 
or 

Seventh.  Five  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  sail  vessels  of  100  gross  tons  or  over.  Service  on 
sail  vessels  engaged  in  the  ocean  or  coastwise  fisheries  shall  be 
accepted  as  meeting  the  requirements  of  this  paragraph,  or 

Eighth.  One  year's  service  as  first-class  pilot  of  lake,  bay,  or 
sound  steam  vessels  of  500  gross  tons  or  over,  together  with  three 
months'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise 
steam  vessels,  or 

Ninth.  One  year's  service  as  master  of  lake,  bay,  or  sound 
steam  vessels  of  500  gross  tons  or  over.. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
second  mate  of  ocean  steam  vessels  does  not  meet  the  specific  re- 
quirements of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  inspectors 
consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  accepted  by 
them  in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  219 

Examination  for  License  as   Chief  Mate  and  Second   Mate  of 
Ocean  Steam  Vessels 

29.  An  applicant  for  license  as  chief  mate  or  second  mate  of 
ocean   steam   vessels   shall  be   required   to  pass   a   satisfactory   ex- 
amination as  to  his  knowledge  of  the  following  subjects: 

.1.  Latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun. 

2.  Latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  a  star. 

3.  Longitude   by  chronometer   (a.   m.   and  p.   m.) 

4.  Deviation  of  the  compass  by  an  amplitude. 

5.  Deviation  of  the  compass  by  an  azimuth. 

6.  Day's  work. 

7.  Mercator's  sailing. 

8.  Determination  of  distance  from  a  fixed  object. 

9.  Chart  navigation. 

10.  Storm   signals. 

11.  Internatonal  code  of  signals. 

12.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

13.  Stowage  of  cargo. 

14.  Use   of   gun   and   rocket   apparatus   for   saving   life 

from  shipwreck,  as  practiced  by  the  United  States 
Coast  Guard. 

15.  Such   further    examination   of   a   non-mathematical 

character  as  the  local  inspectors  may  require. 

THIRD  MATE  OF  OCEAN  STEAM  VESSELS 

30.  An  applicant  for  license  as  third  mate  of  ocean  steam  ves- 
sels shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  furnished  satis- 
factory documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors  that  he  has 
had  the  following  experience: 

First.  Two  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean  or 
coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  Three  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  sail  vessels,  or 

Third.  A  graduate  from  the  seamanship  class  of  a  nautical 
school  ship,  or 

Fourth.  One  year's  service  as  master  or  pilot  of  lake,  bay,  or 
sound  steamers. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
third  mate  of  ocean  steam  vessels  does  not  meet  the  specific  re- 
quirements of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  inspectors 
consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  accepted  by  them 
in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

Examination  for  License  as  Third  Mate  of  Ocean  Steam  Vessels 

31.  An  applicant  for  license  as  third  mate  of  ocean  steam  ves- 
sels shall  be  required  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  as  to  his 
knowledge  of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  Latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun. 

2.  Day's  work. 

3.  Mercator's   sailing. 

4.  Determination  of  distance  from  a  fixed  object. 

5.  Chart  Navigation. 

6.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

7.  Stowage  of  cargo. 

8.  Storm   signals. 

9.  Such    further    examination    of    a    non-mathematical 

character  as  the  local  inspectors  may  require. 


220 THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

CHIEF  MATE  OF  COASTWISE  STEAM  VESSELS 

32.  An  applicant  for  chief  mate  of  coastwise  steam  vessels 
shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  furnished  satisfactory 
documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors  that  he  has  had  the 
following  experience: 

First.  One  year's  service  as  second  mate  of  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  One  year's  service  as  first-class  pilot  of  lake,  bay,  or 
sound  steam  vessels,  together  with  one  year's  service  as  quarter- 
master or  wheelsman  on  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels  while 
holding  a  license  as  first-class  pilot  of  lake,  bay,  or  sound  steam 
vessels,  or 

Third.  Two  years'  service  as  third  mate  of  ocean  or  coastwise 
steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  Two  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  steam 
vessels  engaged  in  the  ocean  or  coastwise  fisheries,  one  year  of 
such  service  to  have  been  as  master  of  such  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  Five  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  sail  ves- 
sels engaged  in  the  ocean  or  coastwise  fisheries,  two  years'  of  such 
service  to  have  been  as  master  of  such  vessels,  or 

Sixth.  Two  years'  service  as  master  of  ocean  or  coastwise  sail 
vessels  of  200  gross  tons  or  over,  or 

Seventh.  Three  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels  for  license  as  chief  mate  of  coastwise 
steam  vessels  of  500  gross  tons  or  under,  or 

Eighth.  Two  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  sail  vessels  together  with  one  year's  service  in  the 
deck  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels  for  license  as 
chief  mate  of  coastwise  steam  vessels  of  500  gross  tons  or  under,  or 

Ninth.  One  year's  service  as  master  or  two  years'  service  as 
first-class  pilot  of  lake,  bay  or  sound  towing  steam  vessels  for 
license  as  chief  mate  of  coastwise  towing  steam  vessels  of  300 
gross  tons  or  under. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
chief  mate  of  coastwise  steam  vessels  does  not  meet  the  specific 
requirements  of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  in- 
spectors consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  ac- 
cepted by  them  in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

SECOND  MATE  OF  COASTWISE  STEAM  VESSELS 

33.  An  applicant  for  license  as  second  mate  of  coastwise  steam 
vessels  shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  furnished  sat- 
isfactory documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors  that  he  has 
had  the  following  experience: 

First.  One  year's  service  as  third  mate  of  ocean  or  coastwise 
steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  One  year's  service  as  quartermaster  or  wheelsman  on 
ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels  while  holding  a  license  as  third 
mate  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Third.  Three  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  Two  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  sail  vessels  together  with  one  year's  service  in  the 
deck  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  A  graduate  from  the  seamanship  class  of  a  nautical 
school  ship  together  with  three  months'  service  in  the  deck  depart- 
ment of  an  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessel,  or 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  221 

Sixth.  One  year's  service  as  a  licensed  master  of  lake,  bay,  or 
sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Seventh.  Two  years'  service  as  first-class  pilot  of  lake,  bay, 
or  sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Eighth.  One  year's  service  as  first-class  pilot  of  lake,  bay,  or 
sound  steam  vessels,  together  with  three  months'  service  in  the 
deck  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Ninth.  One  year's  service  as  chief  mate  of  ocean  or  coastwise 
steam  vessels  engaged  in  the  fisheries,  or 

Tenth.  One  year's  service  as  master  of  ocean  or  coastwise  sail 
vessels  engaged  in  the  fisheries. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
second  mate  of  coastwise  steam  vessels  does  not  meet  the  specific 
requirements  of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  inspectors 
consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  accepted  by  them 
in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

THIRD  MATE  OF  COASTWISE  STEAM  VESSELS 

34.  An  applicant  for  license  as  third  mate  of  coastwise  steam 
vessels  shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  furnished  sat- 
isfactory documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors  that  he  ha? 
had  the  following  experience: 

First.  Two  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean  or 
coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  Three  years'  service  in  the  deck  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  sail  vessels,  or 

Third.  A  graduate  from  the  seamanship  class  of  a  nautical 
school  ship,  or 

Fourth.  One  year's  service  as  master  or  first-class  pilot  of  lake, 
bay,  or  sound  steam  vessels. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
third  mate  of  coastwise  steam  vessels  does  not  meet  the  specific 
requirements  of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  in- 
spectors consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  accept- 
ed by  them  in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

Examination  for   License  as   Chief   Mate  and  Second   Mate  of 
Coastwise   Steam   Vessels 

35.  An  applicant  for  license  as  chief  mate   or  second   mate   of 
coastwise  steam  vessels  on  routes  exceeding  600  miles  shall  be  re- 
quired to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  as  to  his  knowledge   of 
the  following  subjects: 

1.  Latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun. 

2.  Day's  work. 

3.  Determination  of  distance  from  a  fixed  object. 

4.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

5.  Chart  navigation. 

6.  Stowage  of  cargo. 

7.  Storm   signals. 

8.  Such    further    examination    of    a    non-mathematical 

character  as  the  local  inspectors  may  require. 

An  applicant  for  license  as  chief  mate  or  second  mate  of 
coastwise  steam  vessels  on  routes  of  600  miles  or  less  shall  be  re- 
quired to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  as  to  his  knowledge  of  the 
following  subjects: 


222  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

1.  Chart  navigation. 

2.  Aids   to  navigation   on   route. 

3.  Determination  of  distance  from   a  fixed  object. 

4.  Marking  of  lead   line. 

5.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

6.  Storm   signals. 

7.  Such   further  examination   of  a   non-mathematical 

character  as  the  local  inspectors  may  require. 

Examination  for   License  as  Third   Mate   of  Coastwise  Steam 

Vessels 

36.  An  applicant  for  license  as  third  mate  of  coastwise  steam 
vessels  shall  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  as  to  his  knowledge  of 
the  following  subjects: 

1.  Chart  navigation. 

2.  Determination    of    distance    from    a    fixed    object. 

3.  International  rules  for  preventing  collisions  at  sea. 

4.  Marking  lead  line. 

5.  Storm  signals. 

6.  Such   further  examination  of  a  non-mathematical   char- 

acter as  the   local   inspectors  may  require. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  ENGINEERS 


CHIEF   ENGINEER   OF   OCEAN   STEAM   VESSELS 

34.  An  applicant  for  license  as  chief  engineer  of  ocean  steam 
vessels  shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  furnished  sat- 
isfactory documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors  that  he 
has  had  the  following  experience: 

First.  One  year's  service  as  first  assistant  engineer  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  One  year's  service  as  chief  engineer  of  lake,  bay,  or 
sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Third.  Two  years'  service  as  first  assistant  engineer  of  lake, 
bay,  or  sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  Two  years'  service  as  second  assistant  engineer  of 
ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  Three  years'  service  in  the  engine  department  of  an 
ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessel  for  license  as  chief  engineer  of 
ocean  steam  vessels  of  500  gross  tons  or  under. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
chief  engineer  of  ocean  steam  vessels  does  npt  meet  the  specific  re- 
quirements of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local  inspectors 
consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  accepted  by  them 
in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

FIRST     ASSISTANT     ENGINEER     OF     OCEAN     STEAM 
VESSELS 

An  applicant  for  license  as  first  assistant  engineer  of  ocean 
steam  vessels  shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  fur- 
nished satisfactory  documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors 
that  he  has  had  the  following  experience: 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  223 

First.  One  year's  service  as  second  assistant  engineer  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  One  year's  service  as  chief  or  first  assistant  engineer 
of  lake,  bay,  or  sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Third.  Two  years'  service  as  third  assistant  engineer  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  Three  years'  service  as  an  apprentice  to  the  machinist 
trade  and  engaged  in  the  construction  or  repair  of  marine,  station- 
ary, or  locomotive  engines,  together  with  one  year's  service  in  the 
engine  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  A  graduate  from  the  engineering  class  of  a  nautical 
school  ship  together  with  6  months'  service  in  the  engine  depart- 
ment of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Sixth.  A  graduate  in  mechanical  engineering  from  a  duly  rec- 
ognized school  of  technology,  together  with  6  months'  service  in  the 
engine  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Seventh.  Two  years'  service  as  a  locomotive  or  stationary  en- 
gineer, together  with  one  year's  service  in  the  engine  department 
of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Eighth.  Two  years'  service  as  second  assistant  engineer  of  lake, 
bay  or  sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Ninth.  Three  years'  service  in  the  engine  department  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  for  license  as  first  assistant  engineer 
of  ocean  steam  vessels  of  1,000  gross  tons  or  under. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
first  assistant  engineer  of  ocean  steam  vessels  does  not  meet  the 
specific  requirements  of  this  section,  other  service  which  the  local 
inspectors  consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be  ac- 
cepted by  them  in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

SECOND    ASSISTANT    ENGINEER    OF   OCEAN    STEAM 
VESSELS 

An  applicant  for  license  as  second  assistant  engineer  of  ocean 
steam  vessels  shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  fur- 
nished satisfactory  documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors 
that  he  has  had  the  following  experience: 

First.  One  year's  service  as  third  assistant  engineer  of  ocean 
or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  Six  months'  service  as  chief  engineer,  first  assistant 
engineer  or  second  assistant  engineer  of  lake,  bay,  or  sound  steam 
vessels,  or 

Third.  One  year's  service  as  third  assistant  engineer  of  lake, 
bay.  or  sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  Three  years'  service  as  oiler,  or  water  tender,  or 
combined  service  of  three  years  in  these  positions,  on  ocean  or 
coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  A  graduate  from  the  engineering  class  of  a  nautical 
school  ship  together  with  3  months'  service  in  the  engine  depart- 
ment of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Sixth.  A  graduate  in  mechanical  engineering  from  a  duly 
recognized  school  of  technology,  together  with  3  months  service 
in  the  engine  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Seventh.  Three  years'  service  as  an  apprentice  to  the  machin- 
ist trade  and  engaged  in  the  construction  or  repair  of  marine,  sta- 
tionary, or  locomotive  engines,  together  with  6  months'  service  in 
the  engine  department  of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 


224  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

Eighth.  One  year's  service  as  a  locomotive  or  stationary  en- 
gineer, together  with  6  months'  service  in  the  engine  department 
of  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels,  or 

Ninth.  One  year's  service  as  a  stationary  engineer  in  full 
charge  of  a  plant  of  not  less  than  1,000  horsepower. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
second  assistant  engineer  of  ocean  steam  vessels  does  not  meet 
the  specific  requirements  of  this  section,  other  service  which  the 
local  inspectors  consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be 
accepted  by  them  in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 

THIRD     ASSISTANT     ENGINEER     OF     OCEAN     STEAM 
VESSELS 

An  applicant  for  license  as  third  assistant  engineer  of  ocean 
steam  vessels  shall  be  eligible  for  examination  after  he  has  fur- 
nished satisfactory  documentary  evidence  to  the  local  inspectors 
that  he  has  had  the  following  experience: 

First.  Three  years'  service  as  fireman  on  ocean  or  coastwise 
steam  vessels,  or 

Second.  Two  years'  service  .as  oiler,  or  water  tender,  or  com- 
bined service  of  two  years  in  these  positions,  on  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels,  or 

Third.  Six  months'  service  as  chief  or  assistant  engineer  on 
lake,  bay,  or  sound  steam  vessels,  or 

Fourth.  One  year's  service  as  chief  or  assistant  engineer  of 
river  steam  vessels,  or 

Fifth.  A  graduate  from  the  engineering  class  of  a  nautical 
school  ship,  or 

Sixth.  A  journeyman  machinist  who  has  been  engaged  in  the 
construction  or  repair  of  marine  steam  enginos. 

In  cases  where  the  experience  of  an  applicant  for  license  as 
third  assistant  engineer  of  ocean  steam  vessels  does  not  meet 
the  specific  requirements  of  this  section,  other  service  which  the 
local  inspectors  consider  a  fair  and  reasonable  equivalent  may  be 
accepted  by  them  in  lieu  of  the  service  herein  specified. 


QUALIFICATIONS     REQUIRED     FOR     LICENSE     AS 

ENGINEER  OF  STEAM  VESSELS  AND 

LICENSE  FORMS  REQUIRED. 

35.  No  person  shall  receive  an  original  license  as  engineer  or 
assistant  engineer  of  ocean  steam  vessels  who  has  not  had  the  ex- 
perience required  by  the  foregoing  section,  or  experience  which  is 
deemed  by  the  local  inspectors  to  be  a  fair  and  reasonable  equiva- 
lent therefor.  The  examination  for  license  as  chief  or  assistant 


. 

engineer  of  ocean  steamers  shall  be  such  as  to  satisfy  the 
inspectors  that  the  applicant  is  capable  of  meeting  the  require- 
ments and  performing  the  duties  required  by  the  grade  of  license 
for  which  he  makes  application.  No  original  license  shall  be 
granted  any  engineer  who  can  not  read  and  write  and  who  does 
not  understand  the  plain  rules  of  arithmetic.  Licenses  to  engin- 
eers of  ocean  steam  vessels  shall  be  issued  on  Forms  876,  chief 
engineer's  license,  and  877,  assistant  engineer's  license,  according 
to  grades  of  chief  and  assistant  engineers  specified  in  Rule  V. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL,  225 


NAUTICAL  DICTIONARY 


ABACK.  The  position  of  the  sails  when  the  wind  presses  their 
surface  toward  the  mast,  tending  to  force  the  vessel  astern. 

ABAFT.     Toward    the    stern. 

ABEAM.     On  the  side  of  the  vessel,  amidships,  or  at  right  angles. 

ABOARD.     Within,   on  board  the  vessel. 

ABOUT.     To  go  on  the  opposite  tack. 

ABREAST.     Alongside  of.     Side  by  side. 

A- COCK- BILL.  The  position  of  the  yards  of  a  ship  when  they 
are  topped  up  at  an  angle  with  the  deck.  The  position  of 
an  anchor  when  it  hangs  to  the  cathead. 

ADRIFT.     Broken  from  moorings  or  fasts. 

AFLOAT.     Resting  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

AFORE.     Forward.     The    opposite    of    abaft. 

AFT.     Near  the  stern. 

AGROUND.     Touching   the   bottom. 

AHEAD.  In  the  direction  of  the  vessel's  bow.  Wind  ahead  is 
from  the  direction  toward  which  the  vessel's  head  points. 

AHULL.  When  a  vessel  lies  with  her  sails  furled  and  her  helm 
lashed  alee. 

ALEE.  When  the  helm  is  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  in 
which  the  wind  blows. 

ALL-ABACK.     When  all  the  sails  are  aback.     (See  Aback.) 

ALL   HANDS.     The  entire  crew. 

ALL   IN   THE   WIND.     When  all  the  sails  are  shaking. 

ALOFT.     Above  the  deck. 

AMIDSHIPS.  In  the  centre  of  the  vessel;  either  with  reference 
to  her  length  or  to  her  breadth. 

ANCHOR.  An  iron  instrument  which,  when  dropped  to  the  bot- 
tom, holrls  tV>6  VftSSftl 

ANCHOR-WATCH.      (See    Watch.) 

APEAK.     When  the  cable  is  hove  taut  so  as  to  bring  the   vessel 

over  her  anchor. 
APRON.     A  timber  fixed  behind  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  above 

the  fore  end  of  the  keel. 
ARM.     YARD-ARM.     The    extremity    of   a   yard.     Also,    the    lower 

part   of   an   anchor,    crossing   the   shank,   and   terminating   in 

the   flukes. 
ARMING.     A  Diece  of  tallow  Diit  in  the  cavity  and  over  the  bottom 

of  a  lead-line. 

ASTERN.     In  the  direction  of  the  stern.     The  opposite  of  ahead. 
ATHWART.     Across. 

Athwart-ships.     Across  the  line  of  the  vessel's  keel. 

Athwart- hawse.     Across     the     direction     of     a     vessel's     head. 

Across  her  cable. 
ATHWART-SHIPS.     Across  the  length  of  a  vessel.     The  opposite 

to  fore-and-aft. 
ATRIP.     The  position  of  the  anchor  when  it  is  raised  clear  of  the 

ground. 

AVAST.     To  stop;    "Avast  heaving!" 
A  WEATHER.     When  the  helm  is  put  in  the  direction  from  which 

the  wind   blows. 
A  WEIGH.     The   same   as  atrip. 
AWNING.     A  covering  of  canvas  over  a  vessel's  deck,   or  over  a 

boat,  to  keep  off  sun  or  rain. 


226  THE    MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL 

AYE.     Yes:   and  is  always  used  in  lieu  therefor  at  sea,   as   "Aye, 

aye,   sir,"  meaning   "I  understand." 
BACK.     To   back  an   anchor,  is  to  carry  out  a  smaller  one  ahead 

of  the  one  by  which  the  vessel  rides,  to  take  off  some  of  the 

strain. 

To  back  a  sail,  is  to  throw  it  aback.     (See  Aback.) 
To  back  and  fill,  is  to  alternately  back  and  fill  the  sails. 
BACKSTAYS.     Rigging  running  from  the  masthead  to  the  vessel's 

side,  slanting  a  little  aft. 
BALANCE- REEF.     The  closest  reef,  and  makes  the  sail  triangular, 

or  nearly  so. 

BALE.     To  bale  a  boat,  is  to  throw  water  out  of  her. 
BALLAST.     Heavy  material,  as  iron,  lead,  or  stone,  placed  in  the 

bottom  of  the  hold,  to  keep  a  vessel  steady. 
To   freshen    ballast,    is   to   shift   it.     Shingle    ballast   is    coarse 

gravel. 
BANK.     A  boat  is  double  banked  when  two  oars,  one  opposite  the 

other,  are  pulled  by  men  seated  on  the  same  thwart. 
BAR.     A  bank  or  shoal.     Capstan -bars  are  heavy  pieces  of  wood 

by  which   the   capstan   is   worked. 

BARE -POLES.     The  condition  of  a  vessel  when  she  has  no  sail  set. 
BARGE.     A   large   double-banked  boat,   usually  used   by  the   com- 
mander of  a  vessel  in  the  navy. 
BARK,  OR  BARQUE.     A  three-masted  vessel,  having  her  fore  and 

main  masts  rigged  like   a  ship's,   and  her  mizzen  mast  like 

the  main   mast   of  a   schooner,   with   no   sail    upon   it  but   a 

spanker,  and  gaff  topsail. 

BARNACLE.     A  shell-fish   often   found   on  a  vessel's   bottom. 
BATTENS.     Thin  strips  of  wood  put  around  the  hatches,   to  keep 

the  tarpaulin  down.     Also,  put  upon  rigging  to  keep  it  from 

chafing.     A  large  batten  widened  at  the  end,   and  put  upon 

rigging,   is  called  a  Scotchman. 
Battens  are  often  used  on  yachts  on  the  leech  of  a  mainsail 

to  make  it  set  flat. 
BEACON.     A  post  or  buoy  placed  over  a  shoal  or  bank  to  warn 

vessels  of  danger.     Also  a  signalmark  on  land. 
BEAMS.     Strong  pieces  of  timber  stretching  across  the  vessel,  to 

support  the  decks. 
On  the  weather  or  lee  beam,  is  in  a  direction  to  windward  or 

leeward,  at  right  angles  with  the  keel. 
On    beam -ends.     The   situation   of  a   vessel  when   turned   over 

so  that  her  beams  are  inclined  toward  the  vertical. 
BEAR.     An  object  bears  so  and  so,   when  it  is  in  such  direction 

from  the  person  looking. 

To  bear  down  upon  a  vessel,  is  to  approach  her  from  the  wind- 
ward. 

To  bear  a -hand.     To  make  haste. 
BEARING.     The   direction   of   an   object   from   the   person   looking. 

The  bearings  of  a  vessel  are  the  widest  part  of  her  below 

the    plank-shear.     That    part    of    her    hull    which    is    on    the 

water-line  when  she  is  at  anchor  and  in  her  proper  trim. 
BEATING.     Going  toward  the  direction  of  the  wind,   by  alternate 

tacks. 
BECALM.     To  intercept  the  wind.     A  vessel  to  windward  is  said  to 

becalm   another.     So  one   sail   becalms  another.     A  highland 

has  the  same  effect. 

BECKET.     A  piece  of  rope  placed  so  as  to  confine  a  spar  or  an- 
other rope.     A  handle  made  of  rope,  in  the  form  of  a  circle, 

the  handle  of  a  chest  is  called  a  becket. 
BEES.     Pieces  of  plank  bolted  to  the  outer  end   of  the  bowsprit, 

to  reeve   the   foretopmast   stays  through. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  227 

BELAY.  To  make  a  rope  fast  by  turns  around  a  pin  or  coil,  with- 
out hitching  or  seizing  it. 

BEND.     To  make  fast. 

To  bend  a  sail,  is  to  make  it  fast  to  the  spar. 

To  bend  a  cable,  is  to  make  it  fast  to  the  anchor. 

A  bend,  is  a  knot  by  which  one  rope  is  made  fast  to  another. 

BENDS.  The  strongest  part  of  a  vessel's  side,  to  which  the 
beams,  knees,  and  foot-hooks  are  bolted.  The  part  between 
the  water's  edge  and  the  bulwarks. 

BERTH.  The  place  where  a  vessel  lies.  The  place  in  which  a 
person  sleeps. 

BETWEEN   DECKS.     The  space  between  any  two  decks  of  a  ship. 

BIBBS.  Pieces  of  timber  bolted  to  the  hounds  of  a  mast,  to  sup- 
port the  trestle-trees. 

BIGHT.  The  double  part  of  a  rope  when  it  is  folded.  Any  part 
of  a  rope  may  be  called  the  bight,  except  the  ends.  Also, 
a  bend  in  the  shore,  making  a  small  bay  or  inlet. 

BILGE.  That  part  of  the  floor  of  a  ship  upon  which  she  would 
rest  if  aground;  being  the  part  near  the  keel  which  is  more 
in  a  horizontal  than  a  perpendicular  line. 

Bilge  ways.     Pieces  of  timber  bolted  together  and  placed  un- 
der the  bilge,   in  launching. 
Bilged.     When   the   bilge   is   broken   in. 
Bilge    Water.     Water   which   settles   in   the   bilge. 
Bilge.     The  largest  circumference  of  a  cask. 

BILGE  WAYS.     Timbers  placed  beneath  a  vessel  when  building. 

BILL.     The  point  at  the  extremity  of  a  fluke  of  an  anchor. 

BINNACLE.  A  receptacle  placed  near  the  helm,  containing  the 
compass,  etc. 

BITTS.  Perpendicular  pieces  of  timber  going  through  the  deck, 
to  secure  ropes  to.  The  cables  are  fastened  to  them,  if  there 
is  no  windlass.  There  are  also  bitts  to  secure  the  windlass, 
and  on  each  side  of  the  heel  of  the  bowsprit. 

BITTER,  OR  BITTER-END.  That  part  of  the  cable  which  is 
abaft  the  bitts. 

BLADE.     The  flat  part  of  an  oar  which  goes  into  the  water. 

BLOCK.  A  piece  of  wood  with  sheaves,  or  wheels,  through  which 
the  running  rigging  passes,  to  add  to  the  purchase. 

BLUFF.     A  vessel  which  is  full  and  square  forward. 

BOARD.     The  stretch  a  vessel  makes  upon  one  tack,  when  she  is 

beating. 

Stern -board.     When  a  vessel  goes  stern  foremost. 
By  the  board.     When  the  masts  of  a  vessel  fall  over  the  side. 

BOAT-HOOK.     An  iron  hook  with  a  lone:  staff. 

BOATSWAIN.  A  ship's  officer  who  has  charge  of  the  rigging  and 
who  calls  the  crew  to  duty. 

BOBSTAYS.     Used  to  confine  the  bowsprit  to  the  stem  or  cutwater. 

BOLSTERS.  Pieces  of  soft  wood,  covered  with  canvas,  placed  on 
the  trestle-trees,  for  the  eyes  of  the  rigging  to  rest  upon. 

BOLTS.  Cylindrical  bars  of  iron,  copper,  or  composition,  used  to 
secure  the  different  parts  of  a  vessel. 

BOLT- ROPE.  The  rope  which  goes  round  a  sail,  and  to  which  the 
canvas  is  sewed. 

BONNET.  An  additional  piece  of  canvas  attached  to  the  foot  of 
a  jib  by  lacings. 

BOOBY    HATCH.     A  raised   small   hatch. 

BOOM.     A  spar  used   to  extend   the  foot  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  or 

studdingsail. 

Boom -irons.     Iron  rings  on  the  yards,  through  which  the  stud- 
dingsail booms   traverse. 


228  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL 

BOTTOMRY.     A   term    in  marine   law   referring   to   mortgaging   of 

ships. 
BOUND.     Wind-bound.     When  a  vessel  is  kept  in  port  by  a  head 

wind. 

BOW.     The  rounded  part  of  a  vessel,  forward. 
BOWER.     A    working:    anchor,    the    cable    of    which    is    bent    and 

reeved   through   the   hawse-hole. 
Best  bower  is  the  larger  of  the  two  bowers. 
BOWLINE.     A   rope   leading   forward   from   the   leech   of   a   square 

sail,  to  keep  the  leech  well  out  when  sailing  close-hauled.     A 

vessel  is  said  to  be  on  a  bowline,  or  on  a  taut  bowline,  when 

she  is  close-hauled. 
Bowline -bridle.     The    span   on   the    leech   of   the   sail    to   which 

the  bowline  is  toggled. 
BOWSE.     To  pull  upon  a  tackle. 
BOWSPRIT.     A  large,   strong  spar,    standing   from    the   bows   of  a 

vessel. 

BOX- HAULING.     Wearing  a  vessel  by  backing  the  head  sails. 
BOX.     To   box  the  compass,   is  to  repeat  the   thirty-two  points   of 

the    compass    in    order. 
BRACE.     A  rope  by  which  a  yard  is  turned  about. 

To  brace  a  yard,  is  to  turn  it  about  horizontally. 

To  brace  UD.  is  to  lay  the  vard  more  fore-and-aft. 

To  brace   in,  is  to  lay  it  nearer  sauare. 

To  brace  to,  is  to  brace  the  head  yards  a  little  aback,  in  tack- 

ine:  or  wearing. 

BRACKISH.     Half  salt  and  half  fresh  water. 

BRAILS.     Ropes  by  which  the  foot  or  lower  corners  of  fore-and- 
aft  sails  are  hauled  UD. 
BRAKE.     The   handle   of  a   ship's   pump. 
BREAK.     To   break   bulk,   is  to  begin   to   unload. 

To  break  ground,  is  to  lift  the  anchor  from  the  bottom. 

To    break    shear,    is   when   a   vessel,    at   anchor,    in    tending,    is 

forced   the  wrong  way  by  the  wind   or  current,   so  that   she 

does  not  lie  well  to  keep  clear  of  her  anchor. 
BREAKER.     A    small    cask    containing    water.     Breakers.     Waves 

broken  by  ledges  or  shoals. 
BREAST- FAST.     A  rope   used  to  confine   a  vessel  broadside   to   a 

wharf,   or  to  some   other  vessel. 
BREAST- HOOKS.     Knees  in  the  forward  part  of  a  vessel,  across 

the  stern,  to  secure  the  bows. 
BREAST- ROPE.     A  rope  passed  round  a  man  in  the  chains,  while 

sounding. 
BREECH.     The    outside    angle    of   a   knee- timber.     The    after    end 

of  a  gun. 
BREECHING.     A  strong  rope  used  to  secure  the  breech  of  a  gun 

to   the   ship's   side. 
BRIDLE.     Spans  of  rope   attached   to  the   leeches   of  square   sails 

to  which  the  bowlines  are  made  fast.     Bridle- port.     The  fore- 
most port,  used  for  stowing  the  anchors. 

BRIG.     A   square-rigged   vessel,   with   two  masts.     An   hermaphro- 
dite  brig   is   rigged   on   the   foremast   like  a   brig   and   on   the 

mainmast   like   a   schooner. 
BRING  TO.     The  act  of  stopping  a  sailing  vessel  by  bringing  her 

head  up  into  the  wind. 

BROACH -TO.     To  slew  round  when  running  before   the  wind. 
BROADSIDE.     The   whole   side  of  a  vessel. 
BROKEN -BACK.     When  a  vessel  is  so  strained  as  to  droop  at  each 

end. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  229 

BUCKLERS.  Blocks  of  wood  made  to  fit  in  the  hawse-holes,  or 
holes  in  the  half-ports,  when  at  sea.  Those  in  the  hawse- 
holes  are  sometimes  called  hawse- blocks. 

BULK.     The   whole   cargo  when    stowed. 

Stowed  in  bulk,  is  when  goods  are  stowed  loose,  instead  of  be- 
ing stowed  in  casks  or  bags. 

BUNK.     Bed  on  board  ship. 

BULK  HEAD.  Strong  partitions  in  the  hold  of  a  vessel  at  regu- 
lar lengths,  to  prevent  water  filling  all  parts  of  the  vessel 
in  case  of  accident. 

Temporary  partitions  of  boards  to  separate  different  parts  of  a 
vessel. 

BULL.    A  sailor's  term  for  a  small  keg,  holding  a  gallon  or  two. 

BULLS  EYE.  A  small  piece  of  stout  wood  with  a  hole  in  the 
centre  for  a  stay  or  rope  to  reeve  through,  without  a  sheave, 
and  with  a  groove  round  it .  for  the  strap,  which  is  usually 
of  iron.  Also,  a  piece  of  thick  glass  inserted  in  the  deck  to 
let  in  light. 

BULWARKS.  Wood  work  around  a  vessel,  above  deck,  fastened 
to  stanchions. 

BUM-BOATS.  Boats  which  lie  alongside  a  vessel  in  port  with 
provisions,  fruit,  etc..  to  sell. 

BUMPKIN.  Pieces  of  timber  projecting  from  the  vessel  to  board 
the  fore  tack  to;  also  from  each  quarter,  for  the  main  brace- 
blocks. 

BUNT.     The  middle  of  a  sail. 

BUNTING.     Thin  woolen  stuff   of  which  flags  are  made. 

BUNTLINES.     Ropes  used  for  hauling  up  the  body  of  a  sail. 

BUOY.     A  floating  cask,   or  piece   of  wood,   attached  by  a  rope   to 
an  anchor,   to  show  its  position.     Also,   floated   over  a  shoal, 
or  other  dangerous  place   as  a  beacon. 
To  stream  a  buoy,  is  dropping  it  into  the  water  before  letting 

go  the  anchor. 

A  buoy  is  said  to  watch,  when  it  floats  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

BURGEE.     A  small  flag,  either  pointed  or  swallowtail. 

BURTON.     A  tackle,  rove  in  a  particular  manner. 

A  single  Spanish   burton  has  three  single  blocks,  or  two  single 
blocks  and  a  hook  in  the  bight  of  one  of  the  running  parts. 
A  double  Spanish   burton  has  three  double  blocks. 

BUSH.     The  center  piece  of  a  wooden  sheave  in  a  block. 

BUTT.  The  end  of  a  plank  where  it  unites  with  the  end  of  an- 
other. 

Scuttle-butt.     A  cask  with  a  hole  cut  in  its  bilge,  and  kept  on 
deck  to  hold  water. 

BUTTOCK.  That  part  of  the  convexity  of  a  vessel  abaft,  under 
the  stern,  contained  between  the  counter  above  and  the  af- 
ter part  of  the  bilge  below,  and  between  the  quarter  on  the 
side  and  the  stern-post. 

BY.  By  the  Head.  When  the  head  of  a  vessel  is  lower  in  the 
water  than  her  stern.  If  her  stern  is  lower,  she  is  by  the 
stern. 

CABLE.  A  large,  strong  rope,  made  fast  by  the  anchor,  by  which 
the  vessel  is  secured.  A  cable  is  usually  120  fathoms  in 
length. 

CABOOSE.  A  house  on  deck,  where  the  cooking  is  done.  Com- 
monly called  the  Galley. 

CALL.     Bos'n's  call   used  for  piping  orders. 

CAMBER.     A  curvature   upwards. 


230  THE    MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL 

CAN -HOOKS.  Sling's  with  flat  hooks  at  each  end,  used  for  hoist- 
ing barrels  or  light  casks,  the  hooks  being  placed  round  the 
chimes,  and  the  purchase  hooked  to  the  centre  of  the  slings. 

CANT- PIECES.  Pieces  of  timber  fastened  to  the  angles  of  fishes 
and  side-trees,  to  supply  any  part  that  may  prove  rotten. 

CANT-TIMBERS.     Timbers     at     both     ends     of     a     vessel,     raised 

obliquely  from  the  keel. 

Lower  Half  Cants.  Those  parts  of  frames  situated  forward 
and  abaft  the  square  frames  or  the  floor  timbers  which  cross 
the  keel. 

CANVAS.  The  cloth  of  which  sails  are  made.  No.  1  is  the  coars- 
est and  strongest. 

CAP.  A  thick,  strong  block  of  wood  with  two  holes  through  it, 
one  square  and  the  other  round,  used  to  confine  together  the 
head  of  one  mast  and  the  lower  part  of  the  mast  next  above 

CAPSIZE.     To  overturn. 

CAPSTAN.  A  machine  placed  perpendicularly  on  the  deck,  used 
for  heaving  or  hoisting. 

CARDINAL  POINTS.     The  four  main  points  of  compass. 

CAREEN.  To  heave  a  vessel  down  upon  her  side.  To  lie  over, 
when  sailing  on  the  wind. 

CARL  INGS.     Pieces    of    timber    running    between    the    beams. 

CARRICK-BEND.  A  kind  of  knot.  Carrick  bitts  are  the  windlass 
bitts. 

CARRY- A  WAY.     To  break  a  spar,  or  part  a  rope. 

CARRY  ON.     To  carry  all  sail  possible. 

CAST.  To  pay  a  vessel's  head  off,  in  getting  under  way,  on  the 
tack  she  is  to  start  upon. 

CAT.  The  tackle  used  to  hoist  the  anchor  up  to  the  cat-head. 
Cat- block,  the  block  of  this  tackle. 

CAT- HARP  IN.  An  iron  leg  used  to  confine  the  upper  part  of  the 
rigging  to  the  mast. 

CAT- HE  AD.  Large  timbers  projecting  from  the  vessel's  side,  to 
which  the  anchor  is  secured. 

CAT'S-PAW.  A  kind  of  hitch  made  in  a  rope.  A  light  current  of 
air  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

CAULK.     To  fill  the  seams  of  a  vessel  with  oakum. 

CEILING.     The  inside  sheathing  of  a  vessel. 

CHAFE.  To  rub  the  surface.  Chafing-gear  is  the  stuff  put  upon 
rigging  and  spars  to  prevent  chafing. 

CHAINS.  Strong  links  or  plates  of  iron,  the  lower  ends  of  which 
are  bolted  through  the  ship's  side  to  the  timbers.  Their  up- 
per ends  are  secured  to  the  bottom  of  the  dead-eyes  in  the 
channels.  The  chain  cable  of  a  vessel  is  called  familiarly  her 
chain. 

Rudder-chains  lead  from  the  outer  and  upper  end  of  the  rud- 
der to  the  quarters. 

CHAIN -PLATES.  Plates  of  iron  bolted  to  the  side  of  a  ship,  to 
which  the  chains  and  dead-eyes  of  the  lower  rigging  are  con- 
nected. 

CHAMFER.     To  take   off  the  edge,   or  bevel  the  plank. 

CHANNELS.  Broad  pieces  of  plank  bolted  edgewise  to  the  out- 
side of  a  vessel.  Used  in  narrow  vessels  for  spreading  the 
lower  rigging. 

CHARTER   PARTY.     A  contract  in  marine  law. 

CHECK.  To  stop  or  impede,  as  to  check  the  cable  from  paying 
out. 

CHEEKS.  The  projections  on  each  side  of  a  mast,  upon  which 
the  trestle-trees  rest.  The  sides  of  the  shell  of  a  block. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  231 

CHIMES.     The  ends  of  the  staves  of  a  cask,  where  they  come  out 

beyond  the  head   of  the  cask. 
CHINSE.     To  drive  oakum   into   seams. 
CHIPS.     Nickname  for  ship's  carpenter. 
CHOCKS.     Wedges  used  to  secure  anything  with,  or  to  rest  upon. 

The    long   boat   rests    upon   two   chocks,    when    it   is    stowed. 

Chock-a-block.     When    the    lower    block    of    a    tackle    is    run 

close  up  to  the  upper  one,   so  that  you  can  hoist  no  higher. 

This  is  also  called   two- blocks. 
CISTERN.     An  apartment  in  the  hold  of  a  vessel,   having  a  pipe 

leading  out  through  the  side,  with  a  sea-cock,  by  which  wa- 
ter may  be  let  in. 
CLAMPS.     Thick  planks  on   the   inside   of  vessels,    to   support  the 

ends  of  beams. 

CLAWING   OFF.     To  work  off  close-hauled  from  lee  shore. 
CLEAT.     A  piece   of  wood   used   in  different   parts   of  a  vessel   to 

belay  ropes  to. 
CLEW.     The  lower  corner  of  square  sails,  and  the  after  corner  of 

fore-and-aft  sails. 

CLEWLINE.     A  rope  that  hauls  up  the  clew  of  a  square  sail. 
CLINCH.     A  half -hitch,   stopped  to  its  own  part. 
CLOSE-HAULED.     When  a  vessel  is  sailing  as  close  to  the  wind 

as  she  will  go. 

CLOSE- REEFED.     When  all  the  reefs  are  taken  in. 
CLOVE- HITCH.     Two  half-hitches  round  a  spar  or  other  rope. 
CLOVE- HOOK.     An    iron    clasp,    in    two    parts,    moving    upon    the 

same   pivot,    and   overlapping. 

CLUBBING.     Drifting  down  a  current  with  an  anchor  out. 
COAL    TAR.     Tar  made   from   bituminous   coal. 
COAMINGS.     Raised  work   around   the   hatches,    to   prevent   water 

going  into  the  hold. 
COAT.     Mast-coat  is  a  piece  of  canvas,   tarred  or  painted,   placed 

around  a  mast  or  bowsprit,  where  it  enters  the  deck  to  keep 

out  water. 

COCK- BILL.     To  cock-bill  a  yard  or  anchor.     (See  A-cock-bill.) 
COCK- PIT.     An  apartment  in  a  vessel  of  war,  used  by  the  surgeon 

during   an   action. 
The  standing  room  of  a  yacht. 

CODE   SIGNALS.     Flag  signals  for  speaking  at  sea. 
CODLINE.     An  eighteen  thread  line. 
COIL.     To  lay  a  rope  up  in  a  circle,   with  one  turn  or  fake  over 

another. 

A  coil  is  a  quantity  of  rope  laid  up  in  this  manner. 
COLLAR.     An  eye  in  the  end  or  bight  of  a  shroud  or  stay,  to  go 

over  the  mast-head. 

COLLIER.     A  vessel  used   in   coal   trade. 

COMPANION.     A  wooden  covering  over  the  staircase  to  a  cabin. 
Companion-way,    the   staircase    to   the    cabin.     Companion-lad- 
der.    Leading  from  the  poop  to  the  main  deck. 

COMPASS.  The  instrument  which  shows  the  course  of  a  vessel. 
COMPOSITE.  A  vessel  with  iron  or  metal  frame  and  wooden  skin. 
CONNING,  or  CUNNING.  Directing  the  helmsman  in  steering 

a  vessel. 

CORINTHIAN.     Amateur. 
COUNTER.     That  part  of  a  vessel  between  the  bottom  of  the  stern 

and    the    wing-transom    and    buttock.     Counter-timbers    are 

short  timbers  put  in  to  strengthen  the  counter. 
COURSES.     The    common    term    for    the    sails    that   hang    from    a 

ship's    lower   yards.     The   foresail    is    called    the    fore    course 

and  the  mainsail  the   main   course. 


232 THE    MERCHANT     MARINE'  MANUAL 

COXSWAIN.     The  person  who  steers  a  boat  and  has  charge  of  her. 

CRAB.  To  catch  a  crab  is  to  catch  the  oar  in  the  water  by  feath- 
ering it  too  soon. 

CRADLE.     A  frame  to  hold  a  vessel  upright  when  hauling  her  up. 

CRAFT.     A  general  term  applied  to  any  collection  of  small  vessels. 

CRANES.  Pieces  of  iron  or  timber  at  the  vessel's  sides,  used  to 
stow  boats  or  spars  upon.  A  machine  used  for  hoisting. 

CRANK.  A  vessel  which  is  inclined  to  lean  over  a  great  deal  and 
cannot  bear  much  sail. 

CRANSE    IRON.     A  cap  or  ring  at  end   of  bowsprit. 

CREEPER.  An  iron  instrument,  with  four  claws,  used  for  drag- 
ging the  bottom  of  a  harbor  or  river. 

CRINGLE.  A  short  piece  of  rope  with  each  end  spliced  into  the 
bolt-rope  of  a  sail  confining  an  iron  ring  or  thimble. 

CROSS-BARS.  Round  bars  of  iron,  bent  at  each  end,  used  to  turn 
the  shank  of  an  anchor. 

CROSS- JACK.  The  cross-jack  yard  is  the  lower  yard  on  the  miz- 
zen  mast. 

CROSS- PAWLS.  Pieces  of  timber  that  keep  a  vessel  together 
while  in  frames. 

CROSS-PIECE.     A  piece  of  timber  connecting   two  bitts. 

CROSS-SPALES.  Pieces  of  timber  placed  across  a  vessel,  and 
nailed  to  the  frames,  to  keep  the  sides  together  until  the 
knees  are  bolted. 

CROSS-TREES.  Pieces  of  oak  supported  by  the  cheeks  and 
trestle-trees  at  the  mast-heads,  to  sustain  the  tops  on  the 
lower  mast,  and  to  spread  the  rigging  at  the  topmast-head. 

CROW- FOOT.  A  number  of  small  lines  rove  through  the  euvrou  to 
suspend  an  awning  by. 

CROWN  of  an  anchor,  is  the  place  where  the  arms  are  joined  to 

the  shank. 

To  crown  a  knot,  is  to  pass  the  strands  over  and  under  each 
other  above  the  knot. 

CRUTCH.  A  knee  or  piece  of  knee-timber,  placed  inside  of  a  ves- 
sel to  secure  the  heels  of  the  cant-timbers  abaft.  Also  the 
chock  upon  which  the  spanker-boom  rests  when  the  sail 
is  not  set. 

CUCKOLD'S  NECK.  A  knot  by  which  a  rope  is  secured  to  a  spar, 
the  two  parts  of  the  rope  crossing  each  other,  and  seized 
together. 

CUDDY.     A  cabin  in  the  fore  part  of  a  boat. 

CUT-WATER.  The  foremost  part  of  a  vessel's  bow.  which  pro- 
jects forward  of  the  bows. 

CUTTER.     A   small   boat.     Also,    a  kind   of  sloop. 

DAVY   JONES.     The   Spirit   of  the   sea. 

Davy  Jones'   Locker  is  the  bottom   of  the   sea. 

DAVITS.  Pieces  of  timber  or  iron,  with  sheaves  or  blocks  at  their 
ends,  projecting  over  a  vessel's  sides  or  stern,  to  hoist  up 
boats.  Also,  a  spas  with  a  roller  or  sheave  at  its  end,  used 
for  fishing  the  anchor,  called  a  fish -davit. 

DEAD  EYE.  A  circular  block  of  wood,  with  holes  through  it.  for 
the  lanyards  of  rigging  to  reeve  through,  without  sheaves, 
and  with  a  groove  round  it  for  an  iron  strap. 

DEAD- LIGHTS.     Ports  placed  in  the  cabin  windows. 

DEAD  RECKONING.  A  reckoning  kept  by  observinc  a  vessel's 
courses  and  distances  by  the  log. 

DEAD-RISING,  or  RISING-LINE.     Those  parts  of  a  vessels  f 

throughout    her    length,    where    the    floor-timbers    terminate 
upon  the  lower  futtock. 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL  233 

DEAD-WATER.  The  eddy  under  a  vessel's  counter  when  in  mo- 
tion. 

DEAD-WOOD.  Blocks  of  timber,  laid  upon  each  end  of  the  keel, 
where  the  vessel  narrows. 

DECK.     The  Dlanked  floor  of  a  vessel,  resting  upon  the  beams. 

DECK-STOPPER.  A  stopper  used  for  securing  the  cable  forward 
of  the  windlass  or  capstan,  while  it  is  being  overhauled. 

DEEP-SEA-LEAD.     The  lead  used  in  sounding  at  great  depths. 

DEPARTURE.  The  easting  or  westing  made  by  a  vessel.  The 
bearing  of  an  object  on  the  coast  from  which  a  vessel  com- 
mences dead  reckoning. 

DERELICT.     A  vessel  forsaken  on  the  high  seas. 

DERRICK.  A  single  spar,  supported  by  stays  and  guys,  to  which 
a  purchase  is  attached,  used  to  unload  vessels,  and  for  hoist- 
ing heavy  objects. 

DINGHY.     A  small  open  boat. 

DISPLACEMENT.     The  weight  of  water  displaced  by  any  vessel. 

DOG.  A  short  iron  bar,  with  a  fang  or  teeth  at  one  end,  and  a 
ring  at  the  other.  Used  for  a  purchase,  the  fang  being  placed 
against  a  beam  or  knee,  and  the  block  of  a  tackle  hooked  to 
the  ring. 

DOG- VANE.  A  small  vane,  usually  made  of  bunting,  to  show  the 
direction  of  t^ft  wind. 

DOG-WATCHES.  Half  watches  of  two  hours  each,  from  4  to  6 
anrt  6  to  X  P.  M. 

DOLPHIN.  A  rope  or  strap  around  a  mast  to  support  the  pud- 
dening, where  the  lower  yards  rest  in  the  slings.  Also,  a 
spar  or  buoy,  to  which  vessels  may  bend  their  cables. 

DOLPHIN-STRIKER.     The   martingale. 

DOUSE.     To   lower    suddenly. 

DOWN  HAUL.  A  rope  used  to  haul  down  jibs,  staysails,  and  stud- 
dingsails. 

DRAG.  A  machine  with  a  bag  net,  used  for  dragging  on  the  bot- 
tom for  anything  lost.  A  sea  anchor  to  keep  the  head  of  the 
vessel  to  the  wind,  in  bad  weather. 

DRAUGHT.  The  depth  of  water  which  a  vessel  requires  to  float 
her. 

DRAW.     A  sail  draws  when  it  is  filled  by  the  wind. 

DRIFTS.     Pieces  in  the  sheer-draught  where  the  rails  are  cut  off. 

DRIVE.     To  scud  before  a  gale,   or  to  drift  in  a  current. 

DRIVER.     A   spanker. 

DROP.     The  depth  of  a  sail,  from  head  to  foot,  amidships. 

DRUM -HEAD.     The  top  of  the  capstan. 

DUB.     To  reduce  the  end  of  a  timber. 

DUCK.  A  kind  of  cloth,  lighter  and  finer  than  canvas;  used  for 
small  sails. 

DUNNAGE.  Loose  material,  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  hold, 
above  the  ballast,  to  stow  cargo. 

EARING.  A  rope  attached  to  the  cringle  of  a  sail,  by  which  it  is 
bent  or  reefed. 

EBB.     The  reflux  of  the  tide. 

EDDY.  A  circular  motion  in  the  water  caused  by  the  meeting  of 
opposite  currents. 

ELBOW.     Two  crosses  in  a  hawse. 

ENSIGN.  The  flag  carried  by  a  ship  as  the  insignia  of  her  na- 
tionality. 

EQUINOX.     The  time  the  sun  crosses  the  equator. 

EVEN-KEEL.  The  position  of  a  vessel  when  she  is  so  trimmed 
that  she  sits  evenly  upon  the  water,  neither  end  being  down 
more  than  the  other. 


234  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

EUVROU.     A  piece  of  wood,   by  which  the  legs  of  the  crow-foot 

to  an  awning  are  extended. 
EYE.     The  circular  part  of  a  shroud  or  stay,  where  it  goes  over  a 

mast. 
Eye- bolt.     A  long  iron  bar,  having  an  eye  at  one  end,  driven 

through  a  vessel's  deck  or  side  into  a  timber  or  beam,  with 

the   eye   remaining   out,   to  hook   a  tackle   to.     If  there   is   a 

ring  through  this  eye,  it  is  called  a  ring-bolt. 
An  Eye-splice  is  a  kind  of  splice  made  with  the  end  of  a  rope. 
Eyelet-hole.     A  hole  made  in  a  sail  for  cringle  or  roband  to  go 

through. 

The  Eyes  of  a  vessel.     The  extreme  forward  part. 
FACE- PIECES.     Pieces   of  wood  wrought  on  the  fore  part  of  the 

knee  of  the  head. 

FACING.     Letting  one  piece  of  timber  into  another  with  a  rabbet. 
FAG.     A  rope  is  fagged   when  the  end  is  untwisted. 
FAIR- LEADER.     A  strip  of  board  or  plank  or  metal,  with  holes  in 

it,    for   running   rigging   to   lead    through.     Also,    a   block    or 

thimble  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
FAKE.     One  of  the  circles  made  in  coiling  a  rope. 
FALL.     That  part  of  a   tackle   to  which   the   power   is  applied   in 

hoisting. 
FALSE   KEEL.     A  supplementary  keel,  bolted  to  the  main  keel  on 

the  outside,   to  give   a  vessel  more  draught. 
FANCY- LINE.     A  line  rove  through  a  block  at  the  jaws  of  a  gaff, 

used  as  a  downhaul.     Also,  a  line  used  for  cross-hauling  the 

lee  topping-lift. 
FAS  HI  ON -PIECES.     The  aftermost  timbers,  forming  the  shape  of 

the  stern. 
FAST.     A   rope   by   which    a   vessel    is    secured.     There    are    bow, 

breast,   quarter,   and   stern   fasts. 
FATHOM.     Six   feet. 
FEATHER.     To   feather   an    oar   in   rowing,   is   to   turn   the   blade 

horizontally  with  the  top  aft  as  it  comes  out  of  the  water, 

so  as  not  to  take  the  wind  or  dip  up  water. 
FEATHER- EDGED.     Planks   which   have   one    edge    thicker   than 

another. 

FENDERS.     Pieces  of  rope  or  wood  hung  over  the  side  of  a  ves- 
sel or  boat,  to  protect  it  from  chafing.     The  fenders  of  small 

boats   and   yachts   are   usually   made   of   canvas   and    stuffed 

with  cork. 
FID.     A   block    of   wood    or   iron,    placed    through    the   hole    in    the 

heel  of  a  mast,  and  resting  on  the  trestle-trees  of  the  mast 

below.      This   supports   the   mast.      Also,    a   wooden   pin.    ta- 
pered,   used   in    splicing   rigging,    etc. 
FIDDLE- BLOCK.     A   long  shell,   with  one   sheave   over  the   other, 

the   lower  smaller  than   the  upper. 
FIFE -RAIL.     The  rail  around  a  mast. 
FIGURE-HEAD.     A   carved   head    or   full-length    figure,    over    the 

cut-water. 
FISH.     To  raise  the  flukes  of  an  anchor  upon  the  gunwale.     Also, 

to  strengthen  a  spar  when  sprung  or  weakened,  by  fastening 

on  other  pieces. 

FISH -DAVIT.     The  davit  used  for  fishing  an  anchor. 
FISH-HOOK.     A  hook  with   a   pennant,   to   the   end   of  which   the 

fish-tackle  is  hooked. 

FISH-TACKLE.     The  tackle  used  for  fishing  an  anchor. 
FLARE.     When   a   vessel's    sides   go    out    from    the    perpendicular. 

The   opposite   to  tumbling-in. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  235 

FLAT.    A  sheet  is  said  to  be  hauled  flat,  when  it  is  hauled  down 

close. 

Flat- aback,  when  a  sail  is  blown  with  its  after  surface  toward 
the  stern. 

FLAW.    A  gust  of  wind. 

FLEET.     To  come  up  on  a  tackle  and  draw  the  blocks  apart,  for 

another  pull,  after  they  have  been  hauled  two -blocks. 
Also,  to  shift  the  position  of  a  block  or  fall,   so  as  to  haul  to 
more  advantage. 

FLEMISH -HORSE.  An  additional  foot-rope  at  the  ends  of  top- 
sail yards. 

FLOOR.     The  bottom  of  a  vessel,  on   3ach  side  of  the  keelson. 

FLOOR  TIMBERS.     Timbers  of  a  vessel  placed  across  the  keel. 

FLOWING  SHEET.  When  a  vessel  has  the  wind  iree,  and  the 
sheets  are  eased  off. 

FLUKES.  The  broad  triangular  plates  at  the  extremity  of  the 
arms  of  an  anchor,  terminating  in  a  point  called  the  bill. 

FLUSH.     Level  with. 

FLY.  That  part  of  a  flag  which  extends  from  the  Union  to  the 
extreme  end. 

FOOT.     The  lower  end  of  a  mast  or  sail. 

FOOT- ROPE.  A  rope  upon  which  to  stand  when  reefing  or  furl- 
ing sail. 

FOOT- WALING.  The  inside  planks  or  lining  of  a  vessel,  over  the 
floor-timbers. 

FORE.  Used  to  distinguish  the  forward  part  of  a  vessel,  or  things 
forward  of  amidships:  as  fore  mast,  fore  hatch.  The  oppo- 
site to  aft  or  after. 

FORE-AND-AFT.  Lengthwise  with  the  vessel.  The  opposite  to 
athwartships. 

FORECASTLE.  That  part  of  the  upper  deck  forward  of  the  fore- 
mast; or,  forward  of  the  after  part  of  the  fore  channels. 
Also,  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel,  under  the  deck,  where 
the  sailors  live. 

FORE- FOOT.  A  piece  of  timber  at  the  forward  extremity  of  the 
keel,  upon  which  the  lower  end  of  the  stem  rests. 

FORE -LOCK.  A  flat  piece  of  iron,  driven  through  the  end  of  a 
bolt,  to  prevent  its  drawing. 

FORE    MAST.     The  forward  mast  of  a.  vessel. 

FORE- REACH.     To   shoot   ahead,   as   when   going   in   stays. 

FORE-RUNNER.  A  piece  of  rag,  terminating  the  stray-line  of  the 
log-line. 

FORGE.  To  forge  ahead,  to  shoot  ahead;  as,  in  coming  to  anchor, 
or  when  going  in  stays. 

FORWARD.     In  front  of. 

FOTHER  OR  FODDER.  To  draw  a  sail,  filled  with  oakum,  under 
a  vessel's  bottom,  to  stop  a  leak. 

FOUL.     The  opposite  of  clear. 

FOUL  ANCHOR.     When  the  cable  has  a  turn  around  the  anchor. 

FOUL  HAWSE.     When  the  two  cables  are  crossed  or  twisted,  be- 
yond the   stem. 
'OUNDER.     When   a  vessel   fills   with   water   and    sinks. 

FOX.     Made   by  twisting   together   two  or  more   ropeyarns. 

A  Spanish  fox  is  made  by  untwisting  a  single  yarn  and  laying 
it  up  the  contrary  way. 

FRAME.     Skeleton  of  a  vessel. 

FRAP.  To  pass  ropes  around  a  sail  to  keep  it  from  blowing 
loose.  Also,  to  draw  ropes  around  a  vessel  which  is  weak- 
ened, to  keep  her  together. 


236  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

FREE.  A  vessel  is  going  free,  when  she  has  a  fair  wind.  A  ves- 
sel is  free,  when  the  water  has  been  pumped  out  of  her. 

FREEBOARD.     That   portion    of   a   vessel    out   of   water. 

FRESHEN.  To  relieve  a  rope,  by  moving  its  place;  as,  to  freshen 
the  nip  of  a  stay,  is  to  shift  it  so  as  to  prevent  its  chafing 
through.  To  freshen  ballast,  is  to  alter  its  position. 

FRENCH -FAKE.  To  coil  a  rope  with  each  fake  outside  of  the 
other,  beginning  in  the  middle.  If  there  are  to  be  riding 
fakes,  they  begin  outside  and  go  in.  This  is  a  Flemish  coil. 

FULL-AND-BY.  Sailing  close-hauled  on  a  wind.  The  order  given 
to  keep  the  sails  full  and  at  the  same  time  close  to  the  wind. 

FURL.     To  roll  a  sail  up  snugly  on  a  yard  or  boom,  and  secure  it. 

FUTTOCK- PLATES.  Iron  plates  crossing  the  sides  of  the  t9p- 
rim  perpendicularly.  The  dead-eyes  of  the  topmast  rigging 
are  fitted  to  their  upper  ends,  and  the  futtock-shrouds  to 
their  lower  ends. 

FUTTOCK-SHROUDS.  Short  shrouds,  leading  from  the  lower 
ends  of  the  futtock-plates  to  the  bend  around  the  lower  mast, 
just  below  the  too. 

FUTTOCK-STAFF.  A  short  piece  of  wood  or  iron,  seized  across 
the  upper  part  of  the  rigging,  to  which  the  cat-harpin  legs 
are  secured. 

FUTTOCK-TIMBERS.  Timbers  between  the  floor  and  naval  tim- 
bers, and  the  top-timbers  There  are  two — the  lower,  which 
is  over  the  floor,  and  the  middle,  which  is  over  the  naval 
timber.  The  naval  timber  is  sometimes  called  the  ground 
futtock. 

GAFF.     A  spar,   to  which  the  head  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is  bent. 

GAFF-TOPSAIL.  A  light  sail  set  over  a  gaff,  the  foot  being 
spread  by  it. 

GAGE.  The  depth  of  water  of  a  vessel.  Also,  the  position  as  to 
another  vessel,  as  having  the  weather  or  lee  gage. 

GALLEY.     The  place  where  the  cooking  is  done. 

GALLOWS-BITTS.  A  strong  frame  raised  amidships,  to  support 
spare  spars,  etc. 

GAMMONING.  The  lashing  by  which  the  bowsprit  is  secured  to 
the  cutwater. 

GANG  CASKS.  Small  casks,  used  for  bringing  water  on  board  in 
boats. 

GANGWAY.  That  part  of  a  vessel's  side,  amidships,  where 
people  pass  in  and  out  of  the  vessel. 

GARBOARD-STREAK.     The   planks   next   the   keel,    on   each   side. 

GARLAND.  A  large  rope,  strap  or  grommet,  lashed  to  a  spar 
when  hoisting  it  on  board. 

GARNET.     A  purchase  on   the  mainstay,   for  hoisting. 

GASKETS.  Ropes  or  piece  of  canvas,  used  to  secure  a  sail  when 
it  is  furled. 

GEAR.     A  general  term,  meaning  rigging. 

GIG.     Usually  understood   as   the   officers'    boat. 

GIMBLAS.  The  brass  ring  in  which  a  compass  sets  to  keep  it 
level. 

GIMBLET.  To  turn  an  anchor  around  by  its  stock.  To  turn  any- 
thing around  on  its  end. 

GIRTLINE.  A  rope  rove  through  a  single  block  aloft,  making  a 
whip  purchase. 

GIVE  WAY!  An  order  to  men  in  a  boat  to  pull  with  more  force, 
or  to  begin  pulling.  The  same  as,  Lay  out  on  your  oars!  or 
Lay  out! 

GOB- LINE  or  GAUB-LINE.  A  rope  leading  from  the  martingale 
inboard.  The  same  as  back-rope. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  237 

GOOSE-NECK.     An  iron  ring  fitted  to  the  end  of  a  yard  or  boom. 

GORES.  The  angles  at  one  or  both  ends  of  cloths  that  increase 
the  breadth  or  depth  of  a  sail. 

GORING-CLOTHS.  Pieces  cut  obliquely  and  put  in  to  add  to  the 
breadth  of  a  sail. 

GRAFTING.     Covering  a  rope  by  weaving  yarns  together. 

GRAINS.  An  iron  with  four  or  more  barbed  points,  used  for 
striking  small  fish. 

GRANNY   KNOT.     A  square  knot  improperly  tied. 

GRAPNEL.     A  small  anchor  with  several  claws. 

GRAPPLING  IRONS.  Crooked  irons,  used  to  seize  and  hold  ves- 
sels fast. 

GRATING.  Open  lattice  work  of  wood.  Used  principally  to  cover 
hatches  in  good  weather;  also  to  let  in  light  and  air. 

GREAVE.     To  clean  a  ship's  bottom  by  burning. 

GRIPE.  The  outside  timber  of  the  fore-foot,  under  water,  fas- 
tened to  the  lower  stem-piece.  A  vessel  gripes  when  she 
tends  to  come  up  into  the  wind. 

GRIPES.  Bars  of  iron,  with  lanyards,  rings,  and  clews,  by  which 
a  boat  is  lashed  to  the  ring-bolts  of  the  deck.  Those  for  a 
quarter-boat  are  made  of  long  strips  of  canvas,  going  round 
her  and  set  taut  by  a  lanyard. 

G  ROM  MET.  A  ring  formed  of  rope,  by  laying  around  a  single 
strand. 

GROUND  TACKLE.  General  term  for  anchors,  cables,  warps, 
springs,  etc.,  anything  used  in  securing  a  vessel  at  anchor. 

GUN-TACKLE  PURCHASE.  A  purchase  made  by  two  single 
blocks. 

GUNWALE.     The  upDer  rail  of  a  boat  or  vessel. 

GUY.  A  rope  attached  to  anything  to  steady  it.  and  bear  it  one 
way  or  another  in  hoisting. 

GYBE.  To  change  the  position  of  the  sails  of  a  fore-and-aft  ves- 
sel from  one  side  to  the  other  without  going  in  stays. 

HAIL.  To  speak  or  call  to  another  vessel,  or  to  men  in  a  differ- 
ent part  of  the  ship. 

HALYARDS.  Ropes  or  tackles  used  for  hoisting  and  lowering 
yards,  gaffs,  and  sails. 

HAMMOCK.  A  piece  of  canvas,  suspended  by  each  end,  in  which 
seamen  sleep. 

HAND.  To  hand  a  sail  is  to  furl  it.  Bear-a-hand;  make  haste. 
LencUa-hand;  assist.  Hand-over-hand:  hauling  rapidly  on  a 
rope,  by  putting  one  hand  before  the  other  alternately. 

HAND- LEAD.  A  small  lead,  used  for  sounding  in  rivers  and  har- 
bors. 

HANDSOMELY.     Slowly,  carefully.     As  "Lower  handsomely!" 

HANDSPIKE.  A  long  wooden  bar,  used  for  heaving  at  the  wind- 
lass. 

HANDY   BILLY.     A  watch-tackle. 

HANKS.     Rings  or  hoops  of  wood,  rope,  or  iron,  around  a  stay. 

HARPINGS.  The  fore  part  of  the  wales,  which  encompass  the 
bows  of  a  vessel,  and  are  fastened  to  the  stem. 

HARPOON.     A  spear  used  for  striking  whales  and   other  fish. 

HATCH,  or  HATCHWAY.  An  opening  in  the  deck  to  afford  a  pas- 
sage up  s?9d  down.  The  coverings  over  these  openings  are 
called  hatches. 

HATCH -BAR.  An  iron  bar  going  across  the  hatches  to  keep  them 
down. 

HAUL.  Haul  her  wind,  when  a  vessel  comes  up  close  upon  the 
wind. 


238  THE    MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL 

HAWSE-HOLE.  The  hole  in  the  bows  through  which  the  anchor 
cable  runs. 

HAWSE-PIECES.  Timbers  through  which  the  hawse-holes  are 
cut. 

HAWSE- BLOCK.  A  block  of  wood  fitted  into  a  hawse-hole  when 
at  sea. 

HAWSER.  A  large  rope  used  for  various  purposes,  as  warping, 
for  a  spring,  etc. 

HAWSER- LAID,  or  CABLE- LAID  rope,  is  rope  laid  with  nine 
strands  against  the  sun. 

HAZE.  Punishing  a  man  by  keeping  him  unnecessarily  at  some 
disagreeable  work 

HEAD.  The  work  at  the  prow  of  a  vessel.  If  it  is  a  carved  fig- 
ure, it  is  called  a  figure-head;  if  simple  carved  work,  bend- 
ing over  and  out,  a  billet- head;  and  if  bending  in,  like  the 
head  of  a  violin,  a  fiddle-head.  Also,  the  upper  end  of  a 
mast,  called  the  mast-head. 

HE  AD -SAILS.     All  sails  that  set  forward  of  the  fore-mast. 

HEART.  A  block  of  wood  in  the  shape  of  a  heart,  for  stays  to 
re.eve  through. 

HEART- YARNS.     The  centre  yarns  of  a  strand. 

HEAVE  SHORT.  To  heave  in  on  the  cable  until  the  vessel  is 
nearly  over  her  anchor. 

HEAVE-TO.     To  put  a  vessel  in  the  position  of  lying-to. 

HEAVE    IN    STAYS.     To  go  about,   tacking. 

HEAVER.  A  short  wooden  bar,  tapering  at  each  end,  used  as  a 
purchase. 

HEEL.  The  after  part  of  the  keel.  The  lower  end  of  the  mast 
or  boom.  Also,  the  lower  end  of  the  stern-post.  To  heel,  is 
to  careen  on  one  side. 

HEELING.  The  square  part  of  the  lower  end  of  a  mast,  through 
which  the  fid-hole  is  made. 

HELM.  The  machinery  by  which  a  vessel  is  steered,  including 
the  rudder,  tiller,  wheel,  etc. 

HELM -PORT.  The  hole  in  the  counter  through  which  the  rudder 
head  passes. 

HIGH  AND  DRY.  The  situation  of  a  vessel  when  she  is  aground, 
above  water  mark. 

HITCH.     The  manner  of  fastening  ropes. 

HOG.  A  flat,  rough  broom,  used  for  scrubbing  the  bottom  of  a 
vessel. 

HOGGED.     A  vessel  when,  by  any  strain,  she  droops  at  each  end. 

HOLD.    The  interior  of  a  vessel,  where  the  cargo  is  stowed. 

HOLD  WATER.  To  stop  the  progress  of  a  boat  by  keeping  the 
oar-blades  in  the  water. 

HOLY-STONE.     A  large  stone,   used  for  cleaning  a  ship's  decks. 

HOME.  The  sheets  of  a  sail  are  said  to  be  home,  when  the  clews 
are  hauled  chock  out  to  the  sheave-holes.  An  anchor  comes 
home  when  it  is  loosened  from  the  ground  and  is  hove  in. 

HOOD.    A  covering  for  a  companion   hatch,    skylight,    etc. 

HOOD- ENDS,  or  HOODING- ENDS.  The  ends  of  the  planks  which 
fit  into  the  rabbets  of  the  stem  or  stern-post. 

HOOK-AND-BUTT.  The  scarfing,  or  laying  the/ ends  of  timbers 
over  each  other. 

HORNS.  The  jaws  and  booms  and  gaffs.  Also,  the  ends  of  cross- 
trees. 

HOUNDS.  Projections  at  the  mast-head  serving  as  shoulders  for 
the  trestle-trees  to  rest  upon. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  239 

HOUSE.     To   house  a  mast,   is  to  lower  it   about  half   its   length, 

and    secure    it    by   lashing   its    heel    to    the    mast   below.     To 

house  a  gun,  is  to  run  it  in  clear  of  the  port  and  secure  it. 
HOUSING,   or    HOUSE-LINE.     A   small   rope  made   of   three   small 

yarns,   and  used  for  seizings. 
HULL.     The  body  of  a  vessel. 
IRONS.     A  ship   is    in    irons,   when,    in   tacking,   she   will   not  bear 

away  one  way  or  the   other. 

JACK.     A  common  term  for  the  jack-cross-trees. 
JACK -BLOCK.     A  block  used  in  sending  topgallant  masts  up  and 

down. 
JACK-CROSS-TREES.     Iron   cross-trees   at   the   head   of   the   long 

topgallant  masts. 
JACK -STAFF.     A    short    staff,    raised   at   the    bowsprit    cap,    upon 

which  the  Union  Jack  is  hoisted. 
JACK -STAYS.     Ropes    stretched    taut    along    a    yard    to    bend    the 

head  of  the  sail  to.     Also,  long  strips  of  wood  or  iron,  used 

for  the  same  purpose. 

JACK-SCREW.     A  purchase,   used  for  stowing  cotton. 
JACOB'S    LADDER.     A   ladder   made   of  rope,   with  wooden   steps. 
JAWS.     The  inner  ends  of  booms  or  gaffs,  hollowed  to  go  around 

the  mast. 

JEERS.     Tackles    for   hoisting   the    lower   yards. 
JEWEL- BLOCKS.     Single  blocks  at  the  yard-arms,  through  which 

the   studdingsail  halyards   lead. 
JIB.     A  triangular  sail  set  on  a  stay,  forward.     The  Flying-jib  sets 

outside    of   the   jib. 
JIB-BOOM.     The  boom,  rigged  out  beyond  the  bowsprit,  to  which 

the  tack  of  the  jib  is  lashed. 

JIGGER.     A  small  tackle,  used  about  decks  or  aloft. 
JOLLY-BOAT.     A    small    boat,    usually    hoisted    at    the    stern,    on 

coasting   vessels. 
JURY-MAST.     A  temporary  mast,   rigged  at  sea,   in  place   of  one 

lost. 
KECK  LING.     Old  rope  wound  around   cables,   to  keep  them   from 

chafing. 
KEDGE.     A    small    anchor,    used    for    warping.     To     kedge,    is    to 

warp  a  vessel  ahead. 

KEEL.     The  lowest  and  principal  timber  of  a  vessel,  running  fore- 
and-aft  the   entire  length,   and   supporting   the   frame.     It   is 

composed   of   several   pieces,   placed   lengthwise,    scarfed   and 

bolted  together. 
KEEL- HAUL.     To  haul  a  man  under  a  vessel's  bottom,  by  ropes 

at    the    yard-arms    on    each    side.     Formerly    practised    as    a 

punishment  in   ships   of  war. 
KEELSON.     A   timber  placed  over  the  keel   on   the   floor-timbers, 

and   running   parallel   with   it. 

KENTLEDGE.     Pig-iron  ballast,  laid  each  side  of  the  keelson. 
KEVEL,  or  CAVIL.     A  piece  of  wood,  bolted  to  a  timber  or  stan- 
chion,  used  for  belaying  ropes  to. 
KEVEL- HEADS.     Timber-heads,  used  as  kevels. 
I'JNK.     A   twist  in  a  rope. 
KNEES.     Crooked    pieces    of    timber,    having    two    arms,    used    to 

connect  the  beams  of  a  vessel  with  her  timbers. 
KNIGHT- HE  ADS.     The  timbers  next  the  stem  on   each  side,   and 

continued  high   enough   to   form   a   support   for  the   bowsprit. 
KNITTLES,  or  NETTLES.     The  halves  of  two  adjoining  yarns  in 

a  rope,  twisted  together,  for  pointing  or  grafting.     Also,  small 

line  used  for  seizings  and  for  hammock-clews. 


240  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

KNOT.  A  division  on  the  log-line,  answering  to  a  mile  of  dis- 
tance. A  nautical  mile  is  6.080  feet;  a  land  mile  is  5,280  feet. 

LABOR.  A  vessel  is  said  to  labor  when  she  rolls  or  pitches  heav- 
ily. 

LACING.     Rope  used  to  lash  a  sail  to  a  spar,  or  a  bonnet  to  a  sail. 

LAND-FALL.  Making  land.  A  good  land-fall,  is  when  a  vessel 
makes  the  land  as  intended. 

LAND  HO!  The  cry  used  when  land  is  first  seen  when  coming 
from  sea. 

LANYARDS.  Ropes  rove  through  dead-eyes  for  setting  up  rig- 
ging. Also  a  rope  made  fast  to  anything  to  secure  it. 

LARBOARD.  The  old  term  for  the  port  or  left-hand  side  of  a 
vessel. 

LATCH  INGS.  Loops  on  the  head  rope  of  a  bonnet,  by  which  it 
is  laced  to  the  foot  of  the  sail. 

LATITUDE.     Distance  north  or  south  of  the  equator. 

LAUNCH.    A  large  boat.     The  Long-boat. 

LAY.  To  come  or  to  go;  as,  Lay  aloft!  Lay  forward!  Lay  aft!  Al- 
so, the  direction  in  which  the  strands  of  a  rope  are  twisted; 
as,  from  left  to  right,  or  from  right  to  left. 

LEACH    LINE.     A  rope  used  for  hauling  up  the  leach  of  a  sail. 

LEAD.  A  piece  of  lead,  in  the  shape  of  a  cone  or  pyramid,  with 
a  small  hole  at  the  base,  and  a  line  attached  to  the  upper 
end,  used  for  sounding.  The  hole  in  the  baue  is  greased  so 
as  to  get  at  the  formation  of  the  bottom. 

LEAD  ING- WIND.  A  fair  wind.  Applied  to  a  wind  abeam  or 
quartering. 

LEDGES.  Small  pieces  of  timber  placed  athwart-ships  under  the 
decks,  between  the  beams. 

LEE.     The  side  opposite  to  that  from  which  the  wind  blows;  if  a 
vessel  has  the  wind  on  her  starboard  side,  that  will  be  the 
weather,  and  the  port  will  be  the   lee  side. 
A  lee  shore  is  the  shore  up9n  which  the  wind  is  blowing. 
Under  the  lee  of  anything,  is  when  you  have  that  between  you 

and  the  wind. 

By  the  lee.  A  vessel,  going  free,  when  she  has  fallen  off  so 
much  as  to  bring  the  wind  around  her  stern,  and  to  take  her 
sails  aback  on  the  other  side. 

LEE- BOARD.  A  board  fitted  to  the  lee  side  of  flat-bottomed 
crafts,  to  prevent  their  drifting  to  leeward. 

LEEWAY.  What  a  vessel  loses  by  drifting  to  leeward.  When 
sailing  close-hauled  with  all  sail  set,  a  vessel  should  make 
no  leeway. 

LEECH,  or  LEACH.     The  border  or  edge  of  a  sail,  at  the  sides. 

LEEWARD.  The  lee  side.  In  a  direction  opposite  to  that  from 
which  the  wind  blows,  which  is  called  windward.  The  oppo- 
site of  lee  is  weather,  and  of  leeward  is  windward. 

LIBERTY.     Leave  to  go  ashore. 

LIE-TO,  is  to  stop  the  progress  of  a  vessel  at  sea,  either  by  coun- 
ter-bracing the  yards,  or  by  reducing  sail  so  that  she  will 
make  little  or  no  headway,  but  will  merely  come  to  and  fall 
off  by  the  counteraction  of  the  sails  and  helm. 

LIFE-LINES.  Ropes  carried  along  yards,  booms,  etc.,  or  at  any 
part  of  the  vessel,  to  hold  on  by. 

LIFT.  A  rope  or  tackle,  going  from  the  yard -arms  to  the  mast- 
head, to  support  and  move  the  yard.  Also,  a  term  applied 
to  the  sails  when  the  wind,  strikes  them  on  the  leeches  and 
raises  them  slightly. 

LIGHTER.     A  craft,  used  in  loading  and  unloading  vessels. 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  241 

LIMBERS,  or  LIMBERHOLES.  Holes  cut  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
floor-timbers,  each  side  of  the  keel,  so  as  to  allow  water  to 
flow  fore-and-aft.  Limber- boards  are  placed  over  the  lim- 
bers to  keep  dirt  from  choking  the  limber-holes,  and  are  mov- 
able. Limber-chain.  A  chain  or  small  wire-rope  rove  fore- 
and-aft  through  the  limbers,  to  clear  them  if  necessary. 
Limber-streak.  The  streak  of  foot-waling  nearest  the  keel- 
son. 

LIST.  The  inclination  of  a  vessel  to  one  side;  as,  a  list  to  port, 
or  a  list  to  starboard. 

LOCKER.  A  chest  or  box.  to  stow  things  in.  Chain-locker. 
Where  the  chain  cables  are  kept.  Boatswain's  locker.  Where 
tools  and  small  stuff  for  working  upon  rigging  are  kept. 

LOG-BOOK.  A  journal  kept  by  the  chief  officer,  in  which  the  po- 
sition of  the  vessel,  winds,  weather,  courses,  distances,  and 
everything  of  importance  that  occurs,  is  noted  down. 

LOG.    An  instrument  for  determining  the  speed  of  a  vessel. 

LONG   BOAT.     The  largest  boat  in  a  merchant  vessel. 

LONGITUDE.    Distance  east  or  west  of  meridian  of  Greenwich. 

LONG-TIMBERS.  Timbers  in  the  cant-bodies,  reaching  from  the 
dead-wood  to  the  head  of  the  second  futtock. 

LOOP.  That  part  of  a  vessel  where  the  planks  begin  to  bend  as 
they  approach  the  stern. 

LOOM.  That  part  of  an  oar  which  is  within  the  row-lock.  Also, 
to  appear  above  the  surface  of  the  water;  to  appear  larger 
than  natural,  as  in  a  fog. 

LUBBER.    A  greenhorn  aboard  a  ship. 

Lubber  Line,  the  fore-and-aft  line  of  a  compass. 

LUBBER'S    HOLE.    A  hole   in   the   top,    next  the   mast. 

LUFF.    To  put  the  helm  so  as   to  bring  the   ship  up  nearer  the 

wind. 

Keep  your  luff!  etc.     Order  to  luff.     Also,  the  round  part  of  a 
vessel's  bow.     The  forward  leech   of  fore-and-aft  sails. 

LUFF-TACKLE.     A    purchase    composed    of    a    double    and    single 

block. 
Luff-upon-luff.    A  luff-tackle  applied  to  the  fall  of  another. 

LUGGER.     A    small    vessel    carrying    lug-sails. 

LUG-SAIL.  A  sail  used  in  boats  and  small  vessels,  bent  to  a  yard 
which  hangs  obliquely  to  the  mast. 

LURCH.    The  sudden  rolling  of  a  vessel  to  one  side. 

MADE.  A  made  mast  or  block  is  one  composed  of  different  piec- 
es. A  ship's  lower  mast  is  usually  a  made  spar,  her  top- 
mast is  a  whole  spar. 

MAIN.     In  all  vessels  it  applies  to  the  principal  mast  and  sail. 

MALL,  or  MAUL.     A  heavy  iron  hammer  used  in  driving  bolts. 

MALLET.  A  small  maul,  made  of  wood;  as,  caulking-mallet;  al- 
so, serving-mallet,  used  in  putting  service  on  a  rope. 

MANILLA.     A  flbre  grown  in  the  Philippines. 

MAN -ROPES.     Ropes  used  in  going  up  and  down  a  vessel's  side. 

MARKS.  The  markings  of  a  lead  line  to  show  depths  at  a  glance 
or  by  feeling. 

MARL.    To  wind  or  twist  a  small  line  or  rope  around  another. 

MARLINE.  Small  two-stranded  stuff,  used  for  marling.  A  finer 
kind  of  ^punyarn. 

MARLING-HITCH.     A   hitch    used    in    marling. 

MARLINGSPIKE.  An  iron  pin.  sharpened  at  one  end,  and  having 
a  hole  in  the  other  for  a  lanyard. 

MARRY.     To  join  ropes  together  by  a  worming  over  both. 


242  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

MARTINGALE.     A  short,  perpendicular  spar,  under  the  bowsprit- 
end,    used    for    guying    the   head-stays.     Sometimes    called    a 

dolphin  striker. 
MAST.     A    spar    set    upright    from    the    deck,    to    support    rigging, 

yards,   and   sails. 

MASTER.     The  commander  of  a  vessel. 

MAT.     Made  of  strands  of  old  rope,  and  used  to  prevent  chafing. 
MATE.     An  officer  ranking  next  to  the  master. 
MATHEW  WALKER.     A  stopper  knot  which  takes  its  name  from 

the  originator. 

MEND.     To  mend  service  is  to  add  more  to  it. 
MESHES.     The  spaces  between  the  lines  of  a  netting. 
MESS.     Any  number  of  men  who  eat  or  lodge  together. 
MESSENGER.     A  rope  used  for  heaving  in  a  cable  by  the  capstan. 
MIDSHIPS.     The   timbers   at   the   broadest   part  of  the   vessel. 
MILE.     A  nautical  mile  is  1-60   of  a  degree   of  latitude,   generally 

6,080   feet. 

MISS -STAYS.     To  fail  of  going  about  from  one  tack  to  another. 
MIZZEN-MAST.     The  aftermost  mast  of  a  ship.     The   spanker  is 

sometimes    called    the    mizzen. 

MONKEY   BLOCK.     A  small  single  block  strapped  with  a  swivel. 
MOON -SAIL.     A  small  sail  sometimes  carried  in  light  winds,  above 

a  skysail. 

MOP.     A   cloth   broom    used   on   board   vessels. 
MOULDS.     The    patterns    by    which    the    frames    of    a    vessel    are 

worked   out. 
MOUSE.     To  put  turns  of  rope-yarn  or  spunyarn  around  the   end 

of  a  hook  and  its  standing  part  when   it  is  hooked  to  any- 
thing,  so  as  to  prevent  its  slipping  out. 
MOUSING.     A  knot   or  puddening,   made   of  yarns,   and  placed   on 

the  outside  of  a  rope. 
MUFFLE.     Oars   are   muffled    by   putting   mats    or    canvas    around 

their  looms   in   the   row-locks. 

NAVIGATION.     The   art   of   conducting  a   ship   from  port  to  port. 
NEAP  TIDES.     Low  tides,   occurring  at  the  middle  of  the  moon's 

second   and   fourth   quarters. 
NEAPED.     The  situation  of  a  vessel  when  she  is  aground  at  the 

height  of  the  spring  tides. 
NEAR.     Close  to  the  wind. 
NETTING.     Network    of    rope    or    small    lines.     Used    for    stowing 

away  sails  or  hammocks. 
NINEPIN    BLOCK.     A  block  in  the  form   of  a  ninepin,   used  for  a 

fair- leader  in  the  rail. 
NIP.     A  short  turn  in  a  rope. 
NIPPERS.     A   number   of   yarns   mauled   together,    used   to   secure 

a  cable   to  the   messenger. 

NOCK.     The  forward  upper  end  of  a  sail  that  sets  with  a  boom. 
NUN-BUOY.     A  buoy  tapering  at  each  end. 

NUT.     Projections  on  each  side  of  the  shank  of  an  anchor,  to  se- 
cure the  stock  to  its  place. 
OAKUM.     Stuff  made  by  picking  rope-yarns   to   pieces.     Used    for 

caulking,  and  other  purposes. 
OAR.     A   long   wooden    instrument   with   a   flat   blade   at    one    end, 

used  for  propelling  boats. 
OFF-AND-ON.     To  stand  on  different  tacks  towards  and  from  the 

land. 

OFFING.     Distance  from  the  shore. 

OUT-HAUL.     A  rope  used  for  hauling  out  the  clew  of  a  sail. 
OUT-RIGGER.     A  spar  rigged   out  to  windward  from   the  tops  or 

cross-trees,  to  spread  the  breast-backstays. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL,  243 

OVERHAUL.  To  overhaul  a  tackle,  is  to  let  go  the  fall  and  pull 
on  the  leading  parts  so  as  to  separate  the  blocks.  To  over- 
haul a  rope,  is  generally  to  pull  a  part  through  a  block  so  as 
to  make  slack.  To  overhaul  rigging,  is  to  examine  it. 
PAINTER.  A  rope  attached  to  the  bows  of  a  boat,  used  for  mak- 
ing her  fast. 

PALM.  A  piece  of  leather  fitted  over  the  hand,  with  an  iron  for 
the  head  of  a  needle  to  press  against  in  sewing  canvas.  Al- 
so, the  fluke  of  an  anchor. 

PARBUCKLE.  To  hoist  or  lower  a  spar  or  cask  by  single  ropes 
passed  around  it. 

PARCEL.  To  wind  tarred  canvas  around  a  rope  (called  parcel- 
ling). 

PARRAL.  The  rope  by  which  a  yard  is  confined  to  the  mast  at 
its  centre. 

PART.     To  break  a  rope  or  chain. 

PARTNERS.  A  frame-work  of  short  timber  fitted  to  the  hole  in 
a  deck  to  receive  the  lower  end  of  a  mast  or  pump,  etc. 

PAZAREE.  A  rope  attached  to  the  clew  of  the  foresail  and  wove 
through  a  block  on  the  swinging  boom.  Used  for  guying  the 
clews  out  when  before  the  wind. 

PAUNCH  MAT.  A  thick  mat,  placed  at  the  slings  of  a  yard  or 
elsewhere. 

PAWL.  A  short  bar  of  iron,  which  prevents  the  capstan  or  wind- 
lass from  turning  back. 

PAY-OFF.  When  a  vessel's  head  falls  off  from  the  wind.  To  pay. 
To  cover  over  with  tar  or  pitch.  To  pay  out.  To  slack  up 
a  cable  or  rope,  and  let  it  run  out. 

PEAK.     The  upper  outer  corner  of  a  sail  attached  to  a  gaff. 

PENDANT  OR  PENNANT.  A  long  narrow  piece  of  bunting,  car- 
ried at  the  masthead.  Broad  pennant,  is  a  square  piece, 
carried  in  the  same  way,  in  a  commodore's  vessel.  Pennant. 
A  rope  to  which  a  purchase  is  hooked.  A  long  strap  fitted  at 
one  end  to  a  yard  or  masthead,  with  a  hook  or  block  at  the 
other  end,  for  a  brace  to  reeve  through,  or  to  hook  a  tackle 
to. 

PILLOW.     A  block  which  supports  the  inner  end  of  the  bowsprit. 

PIN.  The  axis  on  which  a  sheave  turns.  Also,  a  short  piece  of 
wood  or  iron  to  belay  ropes  to. 

PINK -STERN.  When  a  vessel  has  a  high,  narrow  stern,  pointed 
at  thft  fmrl. 

PINNACE.     A  boat,  in  size  between  a  launch  and  the  cutter. 

PINTLE.     A  metal  bolt,  used  for  hanging  a  rudder. 

PITCH.  A  resin  taken  from  pine,  and  used  for  filling  up  the  seams 
of  a  vessel. 

PLANKS.  Thick,  strong  boards,  used  for  covering  the  sides  and 
decks  of  vessels. 

PLUG.  A  piece  of  wood,  fitted  into  a  hole  in  a  vessel  or  boat,  so 
as  to  let  in  or  keep  out  water. 

POINT.     To  take  the  end  of  a  rope  and  work  it  over  with  knittles. 

POLE.     Applied  to  the  highest  mast  of  a  ship,  as  sky-sail   pole. 

POOP.     A  deck  raised  over  the  after  part  of  the  spar  deck. 

POPPETS.  Perpendicular  pieces  of  timber  fixed  to  the  fore-and- 
aft  part  of  the  bilge-ways  when  launching. 

PORT.     The  left  side  of  a  vessel  as  you  look  forward. 

PORT  OR  PORT- HOLE.  Holes  in  the  side  of  a  vessel.  Also,  holes 
in  the  bow  of  a  vessel  by  which  to  load  and  unload  large 
timber,  etc.,  too  long  to  go  through  the  hatches. 

PORTOISE.  The  gunwale.  The  yards  are  a-portoise  when  they 
rest  on  the  gunwale. 


244  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 

PRAYER  BOOK.     A  small,  flat  holystone  used  in  narrow  places. 

PREVENTER.     An  additional  rope  or  spar,   used  as  a  support. 

PRICKER.  A  small  marling  spike,  used  in  sail-making,  rigging, 
etc. 

PUDDENING.  A  quantity  of  yarns,  matting,  or  oakum,  used  to 
prevent  chafing. 

PUMP-BRAKE.     The  handle  to  the  pump. 

PURCHASE.  A  mechanical  power  which  increases  the  force  ap- 
plied. 

QUADRANT.     An  instrument  used  in  navigation. 

QUARTER.  The  part  of  a  vessel's  side  between  the  after  part 
of  the  main  chains  and  the  stern.  The  quarter  of  a  yard  is 
between  the  slings  and  the  yard-arm. 

QUARTER- BLOCK.  A  block  fitted  under  the  quarters  of  a  yard 
on  each  side  of  the  slings,  for  the  clewlines  and  sheets  to 
reeve  through. 

QUARTER-DECK.  That  part  of  the  upper  deck  abaft  the  main- 
mast. 

QUARTER- MASTER.  A  petty  officer,  who  attends  the  helm  and 
binnacle,  watches  for  signals,  etc. 

QUICK- WORK.  That  part  of  a  vessel's  side  which  is  above  the 
chainwales  and  decks. 

QUILTING.  A  coating  about  a  vessel,  outside,  formed  of  ropes 
woven  together. 

QUOIN.    A  wooden  wedge  for  the  breach  of  a  gun  to  rest  upon. 

RABBET.  A  groove  to  receive  the  edge  of  a  plank  in  ship  build- 
ing. 

RACE.    A  strong,   rippling  tide. 

RACK.  To  seize  two  ropes  t9gether,  with  cross-turns.  Also,  a 
fair- leader  for  running  rigging. 

RACK -BLOCK.  A  course  of  blocks  made  from  one  piece  of  wood, 
for  fair-leaders. 

RAKE.     The  inclination  of  a  mast  from  the  perpendicular. 

RAMLINE.  A  line  used  in  mast-making  to  get  a  straight  middle 
line  on  a  spar. 

RANGE  OF  CABLE.  A  quantity  of  cable,  ready  for  letting  go 
the  anchor  or  paying  out. 

RATLINES.  Lines  running  across  the  shrouds,  horizontally,  and 
used,  in  going  aloft,  as  a  ladder. 

RATTLE- DOWN  RIGGING.  To  put  ratlines  upon  rigging.  It  is 
still  called  rattling  down,  though  rigging  is  now  rattled  up, 
beginning  at  the  lowest. 

RAZEE.     A  vessel  of  war  which  has  had  one  deck  cut  down. 

READY  ABOUT.    The  order  to  stand  by  to  tack  ship. 

REEF.  To  reduce  a  sail  by  taking  in  upon  its  head,  if  a  square 
sail,  and  its  foot,  if  a  fore-and-aft  sail. 

REEF- BAND.  A  band  of  stout  canvas  sewed  on  the  sail  across, 
with  points  in  it.  and  earings  at  each  end  for  reefing. 

REEF-TACKLE.  A  tackle  used  on  a  square  sail  to  haul  the  mid- 
dle of  each  leech  up  toward  the  yard,  so  that  the  sail  may 
be  easily  reefed.  Also,  on  fore-and-aft  vessels,  to  haul  out 
the  foot  of  the  sail. 

REEVE.  To  pass  the  end  of  a  rope  through  a  block,  or  an  aper- 
ture. 

RELIEVING  TACKLE.  A  tackle  hooked  to  the  tiller,  to  steer  by 
in  case  of  accident  to  the  wheel  or  tiller-ropes. 

RENDER.  To  pass  a  rope  through  a  place.  A  rope  is  said  to 
render  or  not,  as  it  goes  freely. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  245 

RIB- BANDS.  Long,  narrow,  flexible  pieces  of  timber  nailed  to  the 
outside  of  the  ribs  so  as  to  encompass  the  vessel  lengthwise. 

RIBS.     The  timbers  of  a  vessel. 

RIDE  AT  ANCHOR.  To  lie  at  anchor.  Also,  to  bend  or  bear 
down  by  main  strength  and  weight. 

RIDERS.  Interior  timbers  placed  occasionally  opposite  the  prin- 
cipal ones,  to  which  they  are  bolted,  reaching  from  the  keel- 
son to  the  beams  of  the  lower  deck.  Also,  casks  forming  the 
second  tier  in  a  vessel's  hold. 

RIGGING.  The  general  term  for  all  the  ropes  of  a  vessel.  Also, 
the  common  term  for  the  shrouds  with  their  ratlines;  as,  the 
main  riqaina.  mizzen  riaqinq.  etc. 

RIGHT.     To  right  the  helm,   is   to  put  it  amidships. 

RING.  The  iron  ring  at  the  upper  end  of  an  anchor,  to  which  the 
p.ahlft  is  hftnt. 

RING-BOLT.     An  eye-bolt  with  a  ring  through  the  eye. 

RING-TAIL.  A  small  sail,  shaped  like  a  jib.  set  abaft  the  spanker 
in  light  winds. 

ROACH.  A  curve  in  the  foot  of  a  square  sail,  by  which  the  clews 
are  brought  below  the  middle  of  the  foot.  The  roach  of  a 
fore-and-aft  sail  is  in  its  forward  leech. 

ROAD,  or  ROADSTEAD.  An  anchorage  at  a  distance  from  the 
shore. 

ROLLING  TACKLE.  Tackles  used  to  steady  the  yards  in  a  heavy 
sea.  Also,  used  on  smoke  stacks  of  steamers  to  keep  them 
steady. 

ROPE-YARN.  A  thread  of  hemp,  or  other  stuff,  of  which  a  rope 
is  made. 

ROUGH-TREE.     An  unfinished  spar. 

ROUND  IN.    To  haul  in  on  a  rope. 

ROUND    UP.    To  haul   up   on   a   tackle. 

ROUNDING.    A  service  of  rope,  hove  around  a  spar  or  larger  rope. 

ROWLOCKS.     The  receptacles  for  the  oars  in  rowing. 

ROYAL.    A  light  sail  next  above  a  topgallant  sail. 

ROYAL  YARD.  The  yard  from  which  the  royal  is  set.  The 
fourth  from  the  deck. 

RUBBER.  A  small  instrument  used  to  rub  or  flatten  down  the 
seams  of  a  sail  in  sail-making. 

RUDDER.  That  by  which  a  vessel  or  boat  is  steered,  attached 
to  thft  stp.rn-nost. 

RULES  OF  THE  ROAD.  The  international  regulations  for  pre- 
venting collisions  at  sea. 

RUN.  The  after  part  of  a  vessel's  bottom,  which  rises  and  nar- 
rows in  approaching  the  stern-post.  By  the  run.  To  let  go 
by  the  run,  is  to  let  go  altogether,  instead  of  gradually. 

RUNG- HE  ADS.     The  upper  ends  of  the  floor-timbers. 

RUNNER.  A  rope  to  increase  the  power  of  a  tackle.  It  is  rove 
through  a  single  block,  and  a  tackle  is  hooked  to  each  end, 
or  to  one  end,  the  other  being  fast. 

RUNNING  RIGGING.  The  ropes  that  reeve  through  blocks,  and 
are  pulled  and  hauled,  such  as  braces,  halyards,  etc.:  in  con- 
trast to  the  standing  rigging,  the  ends  of  which  are  securely 
seized,  such  as  stays,  shrouds,  etc. 

SADDLES.  Pieces  of  wood  hollowed  out  to  fit  on  the  yards  to 
which  they  are  nailed,  having  a  hollow  in  the  upper  part  for 
the  boom  to  rest  in. 

SAG.    To  sag  to  leeward,  is  to  drift  off  bodily  to  leeward. 


246  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

SAILS  are  of  two  kinds:  square  sails,  which  hang  from  yards,  their 
foot  lying  across  the  line  of  the  keel,  as  the  courses,  top- 
sails, etc.;  and  fore-and-aft-sails,  which  set  upon  gaffs, 
booms,  etc.,  their  foot  running  with  the  line  of  the  keel. 

SAIL   HO!     The  cry  used  when  a  sail  is  discovered  at  sea. 

SAVE-ALL.  A  small  sail  sometimes  set  under  the  foot  of  a  lower 
sail,  often  called  a  catch-all. 

SCANTLING.  A  term  applied  to  any  piece  of  timber,  with  regard 
to  its  breadth  and  thickness,  when  reduced  to  the  standard 
size. 

SCARF.  To  join  pieces  of  timber  at  their  ends  by  shaving  them 
down  and  over-lapping  them. 

SCHOONER.  A  vessel  with  two  or  more  masts.  A  fore-and-aft 
schooner  has  only  fore-and-aft  sails.  A  topsail  schooner  car- 
ries a  square  fore  topsail,  and  frequently,  topgallant  sail  and 
royal  schooners  are  now  built  with  two.  three,  four,  and 
many  with  five  masts. 

SCORE.     A  groove   in   a   block  or   dead-eye. 

SCOTCHMAN.  A  large  batten  placed  over  the  turnings-in  of  rig- 
ging, to  prevent  chafing. 

SCRAPER.  A  small,  triangular  iron  instrument,  with  a  handle 
fitted  to  its  centre,  used  for  scraping  decks,  masts,  etc. 

SCROWL.  A  piece  of  timber  bolted  to  the  knees  of  the  head,  in 
place  of  a  figure-head. 

SCUD.  To  drive  before  a  gale,  with  no  sail,  or  only  enough  to 
steady  the  vessel.  Also,  low,  thin,  clouds  that  fly  swiftly 
before  the  wind. 

SCULL.  A  short  oar.  To  scull,  is  to  impel  a  boat  by  one  oar  at 
the  stern. 

SCUPPERS.  Holes  cut  in  the  water-ways  for  the  water  to  run 
from  the  decks. 

SCUTTLE.  A  hole  cut  in  a  vessel's  deck,  as,  a  hatchway.  Also,  a 
hole  cut  in  any  part  of  a  vessel.  To  scuttle,  is  to  cut  or  bore 
holes  in  a  vessel  to  make  her  sink. 

SEAMS.     The  intervals  between  planks  in  a  vessel's  deck  or  side. 

SEIZE.  To  fasten  ropes  together  by  turns  of  small  stuff,  to  secure 
hooks,  etc. 

SEIZINGS.     The    fastenings    of    ropes    that    are    seized    together. 

SELVAGEE.  A  skein  of  rope-yarns  or  spunyarn,  marled  together. 
Used  as  a  neat  strap. 

SENNIT,  or  SIN  NIT.  A  braid,  formed  by  plaiting  rope-yarns  or 
spunyarn  together. 

SERVE.  To  wind  small  stuff,  as  rope-yarns,  spunyarn,  etc., 
around  a  rope,  to  keep  it  from  chafing.  It  is  wound  and  hove 
round  taut  by  a  serving-board  ©r  mallet. 

SET.     To  set  up  rigging,  is  to  tighten  it. 

SEXTANT.     The  instrument  used  in  determining  altitudes  of  heav- 

SHACKLES.  Links  in  a  chain  cable  fitted  with  a  movable  bolt  so 
that  the  chain  can  be  separated. 

SHANK.  The  main  piece  is  an  anchor;  the  stock  is  made  fast  at 
one  end,  and  the  arms  at  the  other. 

SHANK- PA  INTER.  A  strong  rope  by  which  the  lower  part  of 
the  shank  of  an  anchor  is  secured  tt>  the  ship's  side. 

SHARP  UP.     Yards  when  braced  as  near  fore-and-aft  as  possible. 

SHEATHING.     A  casing  or  covering  on  the  bottom  of  a  vessel. 

SHEARS.  Two  or  more  spars,  raised  at  angles  and  lashed  to- 
gether near  their  upper  ends,  used  for  lowering  or  hoisting 
heavy  objects. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL  247 

SHEAR  HULK.  An  old  vessel  fitted  with  shears,  etc.,  and  used 
for  taking  out  and  putting  in  the  spars  of  the  other  vessels. 

SHEAVE.  The  wheel  is  a  block  upon  which  the  rope  runs.  Sheave- 
hole,  the  place  cut  in  a  block  for  the  ropes  to  reeve  through. 

SHEEP-SHANK.  A  hitch  or  bend,  used  to  shorten  a  rope  tem- 
porarily. 

SHEER,  or  SHEER-STRAKE.  The  line  of  plank  on  a  vessel's 
side,  running  fore-and-aft  under  the  gunwale.  Also,  a  ves- 
sel's position  when  riding  by  a  single  anchor. 

SHEETS.  Ropes  used  in  working  a  sail,  to  keep  the  clew  down 
to  its  place.  With  square  sails,  the  sheets  run  through  each 
yard-arm.  With  boom  sails,  they  haul  the  sails  to  the  de- 
sired positions. 

SHEET  ANCHOR.     A  vessel's  largest  anchor. 

SHELL.    The  case  of  a  block. 

SHIP.  A  vessel  with  three  or  four  masts,  with  tops  and  yards. 
To  enter  on  board  a  vessel.  To  fix  anything  in  its  proper 
place,  such  as  ship  shape. 

SHIVER.  To  shake  the  wind  out  of  a  sail  by  bracing  it  so  that 
the  wind  strikes  upon  the  leech. 

SHOE.  A  piece  of  wood  used  for  the  bill  of  an  anchor  to  rest  up- 
on. Also,  for  the  heels  of  shears,  etc.  Also  added  to  a  ves- 
sel's keel  to  give  her  more  draft. 

SHOE- BLOCK.  A  block  with  two  sheaves,  one  above  the  other, 
the  one  horizontal  and  the  other  perpendicular. 

SHORE.  A  prop  or  stanchion,  placed  under  a  beam.  To  shore, 
to  prop  up. 

SHROUDS.  Ropes  on  each  side  of  a  vessel,  reaching  from  the 
mast-heads  to  the  vessel's  sides,  to  support  the  masts. 

SILLS.  Pieces  of  timber  put  in  horizontally  between  the  frames 
to  form  and  secure  openings. 

SISTER  BLOCK.  A  long  piece  of  wood  with  two  sheaves  in  it, 
one  above  the  other,  with  a  score  between  them  for  a  seiz- 
ing, and  a  groove  around  the  block,  lengthwise.  Two  blocks 
of  same  size  attached  to  a  ring  usually  used  for  jib-halyards, 
etc. 

SKIN.  The  part  of  a  sail  which  is  outside  and  covers  the  rest 
when  it  is  furled.  Also,  the  sides  of  the  hold;  as,  an  article 
is  said  to  be  stowed  next  to  the  skin. 

SKYSAIL.     A  light  sail  next  above  the  royal. 

SKY-SCRAPER.    A   skysail   when   it   is   triangular. 

SLABLINE.    A  small  line  used  to  haul  up  the  foot  of  a  course. 

SLACK.  The  part  of  a  rope  or  sail  that  hangs  down  loose.  Slack 
In  stays,  is  sail  of  a  vessel  when  she  works  slowly  in  tacking. 

SLEEPERS.  The  knees  that  connect  the  transoms  to  the  after 
timbers  on  the  ship's  quarter. 

SLING.     To  set  in  ropes,  so  as  to  put  on  a  tackle  to  hoist  or  lower 

SLINGS.     The  ropes  used  for  securing  the  centre  of  a  yard  to  the 

mast.     Also,  a  large  rope  fitted  so  as  to  go  around  anything 

which  is  to  be  hoisted  or  lowered. 

SLIP.     To  let  go  a  cable  and  stand  out  to  sea.     To  slip  the  anchor. 
SLIP-ROPE.     A    rope    bent    to    the    cable    outside    the   hawse-hole, 

and  brought  in  on  the  weather  quarter,   when  ready  to  slip 

the   anchor. 
SLOPS.     A   name   given   to   ready-made    clothing    supplied   by   the 

captain. 
SLOOP.     A  small  vessel  with  one  mast. 


248  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL, 

SLOOP  OF  WAR.     A  vessel  of  any  rig,  mounting  between  18  and 

32  guns. 
SMALL    STUFS.     Spun-yarn,    marline,    and   the    smallest   kinds    of 

rope,  such  as  ratline,  etc. 

SNAKE.  To  pass  small  stuff  across  a  seizing,  with  marling  hitch- 
es at  the  outer  turns. 

SNATCH -BLOCK.  A  single  block,  with  an  opening  in  its  side  be- 
low the  sheave,  or  at  the  bottom,  to  receive  the  bight  of  a 

rope. 
SNOTTER.     A  rope  going  over  a  yard-arm,  with  an  eye,   to  bend 

a  tripping-line  to  in  sending  down  topgallant  and  royal  yards, 

and  other  spars. 

SNUB.     To  check  a  rope  suddenly. 
SNYING.     A  curved   plank   edgewise,    to   work   in   the   bows   of   a 

vessel. 
SO!     An  order  to  stop  hauling  upon  anything  when  it  has  come  to 

its   right   position. 
SOLE.     A  piece  of  timber  fastened  to  the  foot  of  the  rudder,   to 

make   it   level   with   the   false   keel. 
SOUND.     To  get  the  depth  of  water  by  a  lead  and  line.  The  pumps 

are  sounded  by  an  iron  sounding  rod,  marked  with  a  scale  of 

feet  and  inches. 
SPAN.     A  rope  with  both  ends  made  fast,   so  a  purchase  can  be 

hooked  to  its  bight. 

SPANKER.     The   after   sail   of  a   ship   or  bark. 
SPARS.     The  general  term  for  masts,  yards,  booms,  gaffs,  etc. 
SPEAKING  TRUMPET.     A  trumpet  for  conveying  orders  on  board 

vessel. 
SPELL.     The   common   term    for   a   portion   of   time    given   to   any 

work.     To  spell,  is  to  relieve  another. 
SPENCER.     A  fore-and-aft  sail,  set  with  a  gaff  and  no  boom,  and 

hoisting  from  a  small  mast  called  a  spencer- mast,  just  abaft 

the  fore  and  main  masts.  - 
SPILL.     To  shake  the  wind  out  of  a  sail. 
SPILLING    LINE.     A  rope   used   for   spilling  a   sail.     Used  in   bad 

weather. 

SPLICE.     To  join  two  ropes  together  by  interweaving  their  strands. 
SPINNAKER.     A  light  sail  of  great   spread   used   on  yachts  when 

running   before    the   wind. 

SPIRIT  COMPASS.     The  modern  style  of  compass. 
SPOON-DRIFT.     Water  swept  from  the  tops  of  the  waves  by  the 

violence   of   the   wind,    and    driven   along   before    it,    covering 

the   surface   of  the   sea. 
SPRAY.     An  occasional  sprinkling  dashed  from  the  top  of  a  wave 

by  the  wind. 
SPRING.     To  crack  or  split  a  mast.     To  spring  a  leak,  is  to  begin 

to  leak.     To  spring   a   luff,   is  to  force  a  vessel  close   to  the 

wind,  in  sailing. 

SPRING-STAY.     A  preventer-stay,  to  assist  the  regular  stay. 
SPRING  TIDES.     The  highest  and  lowest  course  of  tides,  occurring 

every  new  and  full  moon. 
SPRIT.     A  small  boom  or  gaff,  used  with  sails  in  small  boats.     The 

lower   end   rests   in   a  becket   or   snotter  by   the   foot   of   the 

mast,  and  the  other  end  spreads  and  raises  the  outer  upper 

corner   of   the   sail,    crossing   it   diagonally.     A   sail   so   rigged 

is  called  a  sprit-sail. 

SPRIT-SAIL-YARD.  A  yard  lashed  across  the  bowsprit  or  knight- 
heads,  and  used  to  spread  the  guys  of  the  jib  and  flying  jib- 
boom. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL  249 

SPUN  YARN.  A  rope  formed  by  twisting  together  two  or  three 
rope-yarns. 

SPURLING  LINE.  A  line  communicating  between  the  tiller  and 
tell-tale. 

SPURS.  Pieces  of  timber  fixed  on  the  bilge-ways,  their  upper  ends 
being  bolted  to  the  vessel's  sides  above  the  water.  Also, 
curved  pieces  of  timber,  serving  as  half  beams,  to  support 
the  decks  where  the  whole  beams  cannot  be  placed. 

SPUR-SHOES.  Large  pieces  of  timber  that  come  abaft  the  pump- 
well. 

SQUARE.  Yards  are  squared  when  they  are  horizontal  and  at 
right  angles  with  the  keel.  Squaring  by  the  lifts  makes  them 
horizontal;  and  by  the  braces,  makes  them  at  right  angles 
with  the  vessel's  line.  To  square  a  yard,  means  to  bring  it 
in  square  by  the  braces. 

SQUARE-SAIL.  A  temporary  sail,  set  at  the  fore-mast  of  a 
schooner  or  the  mainmast  of  a  sloop,  when  going  before  the 
wind. 

STAFF.     A  pole  or  mast,  used  to  hoist  flags  upon. 

STABILITY.     Stiffness  of  a  vessel. 

STANCHIONS.  Upright  posts  of  wood  or  iron,  placed  so  as  to  sup- 
port the  beams  of  a  vessel.  Also,  upright  pieces  of  timber, 
placed  at  intervals  along  the  sides  of  a  vessel,  to  support 
the  bulwarks  and  rail,  reaching  down  to  the  bends,  by  the 
side  of  the  timbers,  to  which  they  are  bolted.  Also,  any 
fixed,  upright  support. 

STAND  BY!     To  be  prepared  to  act  at  once. 

STANDING.  The  standing  part  of  a  rope  is  that  which  is  fast, 
the  opposite  to  the  hauling  part.  The  standing  part  of  a 
tackle  is  that  part  which  is  made  fast  to  the  blocks  and  be- 
tween that  and  the  next  sheave,  the  opposite  to  the  hauling 
and  leading  parts. 

STANDING  RIGGING.  That  part  of  a  vessel's  rigging  which  is 
made  fast  to  the  sides. 

STARBOARD.     The    right    side    of   a    vessel,    looking    forward. 

STATION  BILL.  A  list  showing  the  station  of  every  man,  in  case 
of  accident. 

STAY.  To  tack  a  vessel,  or  put  her  about,  so  that  the  wind,  from 
being  on  one  side,  is  brought  upon  the  other,  around  the 
vessel's  head.  To  stay  a  mast,  is  to  incline  it  forward  or  aft, 
or  to  one  side  or  the  other,  by  the  stays  and  backstays.  A 
mast  is  said  to  be  stayed  too  much  forward  or  aft,  or  too 
much  to  port,  etc. 

STAYS.  Large  ropes,  used  to  support  masts,  and  leading  from 
the  head  of  one  mast  down  to  another,  or  to  some  part  of  the 
vessel.  Those  which  lead  forward  are  called  fore-and-aft 
stays;  and  those  which  lead  down  to  the  vessel's  sides,  back- 
stays. 

In  stays  or  hove  in  stays,  a  vessel  when  she  is  staying,  or  go- 
ing from  one  tack  to  the  other. 

STEADY!     To  keep  the  helm  as  it  is. 

STEERAGE.  That  part  of  the  between-decks  which  is  just  for- 
ward of  the  cabin. 

STEEVE.     A  bowsprit  steeves  more   or   less,    as   it   is   raised   more 

or    less    from    the    horizontal.     The    steeve    is    the    angle    it 

.    makes  with   the   horizon.     Also,   a   long,   heavy   spar,    with   a 

place  to  fit  a  block  at  one  end,   and  used  in  stowing  cargo, 

which   need   be   stowed    close. 


250  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

STEM.  A  piece  of  timber  reaching-  from  the  forward  end  of  the 
keel,  to  which  it  is  scarfed,  up  to  the  bowsprit  and  to  which 
the  two  sides  of  the  vessel  are  secured. 

STEP.  A  block  of  wood  secured  to  the  keel,  into  which  the  heel 
of  the  mast  is  placed. 

STERN.     The  after  end   of  a  vessel. 

STERN -BOARD.  The  motion  of  a  vessel  when  going  stern  fore- 
most. 

STERN -FRAME.  The  frame  composed  of  the  stern-post  transom 
and  the  fashion-pieces. 

STERN-POST.  The  aftermost  timber  in  a  vessel,  reaching  from 
the  after  end  of  the  keel  to  the  deck.  The  stem  and  stern- 
post  are  the  two  extremes  of  a  vessel's  frame.  The  rudder 
is  attached  to  the  stern-post. 

STERN-SHEETS.  The  after  part  of  a  boat,  abaft  the  rowers, 
where  the  passengers  sit. 

STEVEDORE.     A  man  who  loads  and  unloads  cargoes  of  vessels. 

STIFF.  The  quality  of  a  vessel  which  enables  her  to  carry  a  great 
deal  of  sail  without  lying  over  much  on  her  side.  The  oppo- 
site to  crank. 

STIRRUPS.  Ropes  with  thimbles  at  their  ends,  through  which 
the  foot-ropes  are  rove,  and  by  which  they  are  kept  up 
towards  the  yards. 

STOCK.  A  beam  of  wood  or  a  bar  of  iron,  secured  to  the  upper 
end  of  the  shank  of  an  anchor,  at  right  angles  with  the 
arms.  An  iron  stock  usually  goes  with  a  key,  and  unships. 

STOCKS.     The  frame  upon  which  a  vessel  is  built. 

STOOLS.     Small  channels  for  the  dead-eyes  of  the  backstays. 

STOPPER.  A  stout  rope  with  a  knot  at  one  end,  and  sometimes 
a  hook  at  the  other,  used  for  various  purposes  about  decks; 
as,  making  fast  a  cable,  so  as  to  overhaul. 

STOPPER  BOLTS.  Ring-bolts  to  which  the  deck  stoppers  are  se- 
cured. 

STOP.  A  fastening  of  small  stuff.  Also,  small  projections  on  the 
outside  of  the  checks  of  a  lower  mast,  at  the  upper  parts  of 
the  hounds. 

STOW.     To  pack  the  cargo. 

STRAND.  A  number  of  rope-yarns  twisted  together.  Three,  four, 
or  nine  strands  twisted  together  form  a  rope.  A  rope  is 
stranded  when  one  of  its  strands  is  parted  or  broken.  A  ves- 
sel is  stranded  when  she  is  driven  on  shore. 

STRAP.     Rope  or  iron  around  a  block  to  keep  its  parts  together. 

STREAK,  or  STRAKE.  Planks  running  fore  and  aft  on  the  out- 
side of  a  vessel. 

STREAM.  The  stream  anchor  is  one  used  for  warping,  etc.,  and 
sometimes  as  a  lighter  anchor  to  moor  by,  with  a  hawser.  It 
is  smaller  than  the  bowers,  and  larger  than  the  kedgers. 

STRETCHERS.  Pieces  of  wood  placed  across  a  boat's  bottom,  in- 
side, for  the  oarsmen  to  press  their  feet  against,  when  row- 
ing. Also,  cross  pieces  placed  between  a  boat's  sides  to 
keep  them  apart  when  hoisted  up  and  griped. 

STRIKE.     To  lower  sail  or  colors. 

STRIP.     To  dismantle. 

STUDDINGSAILS.  Light  sails  set  outside  the  square  sails,  on 
booms  rigged  out  for  that  purpose.  They  are  only  carried 
with  a  fair  wind  and  in  moderate  weather. 

SUED,  or  SEWED.  The  condition  of  a  ship  when  she  is  high  and 
dry  on  shore. 

SUPPORTERS.     The  knee-timbers  under  the  cat-heads. 

SURF.     The  breaking  of  the  sea  upon  the  shore. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL,  251 

bURGE.  A  large,  swelling  wave.  To  surge  a  rope  or  cable,  is  to 
slack  it  up  suddenly  where  it  renders  around  a  pin,  or  around 
the  windlass  or  capstan. 

SWAB.  A  mop,  formed  of  old  rope,  used  for  cleaning  and  drying 
decks. 

SWAY.     To  hoist   up. 

SWEEP.  To  drag  the  bottom.  Also,  large  oars,  used  in  small 
vessels  to  force  them  ahead. 

SWIFT.     To  bring   two  shrouds  or  stays  close   together   by  ropes. 

SWIFTER.  The  forward  shroud  to  a  lower  mast.  Also,  ropes  used 
to  confine  the  capstan  bars  to  their  places  when  shipped. 

SWIG.  The  mode  of  hauling  upon  the  bight  of  a  rope  when  its 
lower  end  is  fast. 

SWIVEL.  A  long  link  of  iron,  used  in  chain  cables,  made  so  as  to 
turn  upon  an  axis  intended  to  keep  the  turns  out  of  a  chain. 

SYPHERING.  Lapping  the  edges  of  pianks  over  each  other  for 
a  bulk-head. 

TABLING.  Letting  one  beam-piece  into  another.  Also,  the  broad 
hem  on  the  borders  of  sails,  to  which  the  bolt-rope  is  sewed. 

TACK.     To  put  a  ship  about,  so  that  from  having  the  wind  on  one 
side   it   is   brought  around   on   the   other   by   the   way   of   her 
head.     The  opposite  of  wearing. 
A  vessel  is  on  the  starboard  tack,  or  has  her  starboard  tacks  on 

board,  when  she  has  the  wind  on  her  starboard  side. 
The  rope  or  tackle  by  which  the  weather  clew  of  a  course  is 

hauled   forward   and   down. 

The  tack  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is  the  rope  that  keeps  down 
the  lower  forward  clew;  and  of  a  studdingsail,  the  lower 
outer  clew.  The  tack  of  the  lower  studdingsail  is  called  the 
outhaul.  Also,  that  part  of  a  sail  to  which  the  tack  is  at- 
tached. 

TACKLE.  A  purchase;  formed  by  a  rope  rove  through  one  or  more 
blocks. 

TAFFRAIL.     The  rail  around  a  ship's  stern. 

TAIL.  A  rope  spliced  into  the  end  of  a  block  and  used  for  mak- 
ing it  fast  to  rigging  or  spars  is  called  a  tall -block.  A  ship 
is  said  to  tail  up  or  down  stream,  when  at  anchor,  according 
as  her  stern  swings  up  or  down  with  the  tide;  the  opposite 
to  heading  one  way  or  another. 

TAIL-TACKLE.     A  watch-tackle. 

TAIL  ON!     To  take  hold  of  a  rope  and  pull. 

TAR.  A  liquid  gum,  taken  from  pine  and  fir  trees,  and  used  for 
caulking,  and  to  put  upon  yarns  in  rope-making,  and  upon 
standing  rigging,  to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 

TARPAULIN.  A  piece  of  canvas,  covered  with  tar,  used  for  cov- 
ering hatches,  boats,  etc.  Also,  the  name  commonly  given 
to  a  sailor's  hat  when  made  of  tarred  or  painted  cloth. 

TAUT.     Tight,   snug. 

TELL-TALE.  A  compass  hanging  from  the  beams  of  the  cabin, 
by  which  the  heading  of  a  vessel  may  be  known  at  any  time. 
Also,  an  instrument  connected  with  the  steering  apparatus, 
and  traversing  so  that  the  position  of  the  rudder  can  be  de- 
termined. 

TEND.  To  watch  a  vessel  at  anchor  at  the  turn  of  tides,  and  cast 
her  by  the  helm,  and  some  sail,  if  necessary,  so  as  to  keep 
turns  out  of  the  cables. 

TENON.     The  heel  of  a  mast,   made  to  fit   into  the  step. 

THICK- AND-THIN  BLOCK.  A  block  having  one  sheave  larger 
than  the  other.  Sometimes  used  for  quarter-blocks. 


252  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

THIMBi_E.  j\n  iron  ring,  having  its  rim  concave  on  the  outside 
for  a  rope  or  strap  to  fit  snugly. 

THOLE- PINS.  Pins  in  the  gunwale  of  a  boat,  between  which  an 
oar  is  held  when  pulling. 

THROAT.  The  inner  end  of  a  gaff,  where  it  widens  and  hollows 
in  to  fit  the  mast.  Also,  the  hollow  part  of  a  knee.  The 
throat  brails,  halyards,  etc..  are  those  that  hoist  or  haul  up 
the  gaff  or  sail  near  the  throat.  Also,  the  angle  where  the 
arm  of  an  anchor  is  joined  to  the  shank. 

THRUM.  To  stick  short  strands  of  yarn  through  a  mat  or  can- 
vas, to  make  a  rough  surface. 

THWARTS.  The  seats  going  across  a  boat,  upon  which  the  oars- 
men sit. 

TIDE.  To  tide  up  or  down  a  river  or  harbor,  is  to  work  up  or 
down  with  a  fair  tide  and  head  wind  or  calm,  coming  to 
anchor  when  the  tide  turns. 

TIDE  RODE.  When  a  vessel,  at  anchor,  swings  by  the  force  of 
the  tide.  Opposite  to  wind-rode. 

TIER.     A  range  of  casks.     Also,  the  range  of  the  fakes  of  a  cable 

or  hawser. 

The  cable  tier  is  the  place  in  a  hold  or  between  decks  where 
the   cables   are   stowed. 

TILLER.  A  bar  of  wood  or  iron,  put  into  the  head  of  the  rudder, 
by  which  it  is  moved. 

TIMBER.  A  general  term  for  all  large  pieces  of  wood  used  in 
ship-building.  Also,  more  particularly,  long  pieces  of  wood 
in  a  curved  form,  bending  outward,  and  running  from  the 
keel  up,  on  each  side,  forming  the  ribs  of  a  vessel.  The  keel, 
stem,  stern-posts  and  timbers  form  a  vessel's  outer  frame. 

TIMBER- HEADS.  The  ends  of  the  timbers  that  come  above  the 
deck.  Used  for  belaying  hawsers  and  large  ropes. 

TOGGLE.  A  pin  placed  through  the  bight  or  eye  of  a  rope,  block- 
strap,  or  bolt,  to  keep  it  in  its  place,  or  to  put  the  bight  or 
eye  of  another  rope  upon,  securing  them  together. 

TOMPION.    A  bung  or  plug  placed  in  the  mouth  of  a  cannon. 

TOP.  A  platform  placed  over  the  head  of  a  lower  mast,  resting 
on  the  trestle-trees,  to  spread  the  rigging,  and  for  the  con- 
venience of  men  aloft.  To  top  up  a  yard  or  boom,  is  to 
raise  up  one  end  of  it  by  hoisting  on  the  lift. 

TOP- BLOCK.  A  large  iron-bound  block,  hooked  into  a  bolt  un- 
der the  lower  cap,  and  used  for  the  top-rope  to  reeve  through 
in  sending  up  and  down  topmasts. 

TOP-LIGHT.     A  signal  lantern  carried  to  the  top. 

TOP- LIN  ING.  Lining  on  the  after  part  of  sails,  to  prevent  chaf- 
ing against  the  top-rim. 

TOPMAST.  The  second  mast  above  the  deck.  Next  above  the 
lower  mast. 

TOPGALLANT    MAST.     The  third  mast   above   the   deck. 

TOP- ROPE.     The  rope  used  for  sending  topmasts  up  and  down. 

TOPSAIL.     The  second  sail  above  the  deck. 

TOPGALLANT    SAIL.     The   third    sail   above   the   deck. 

TOPPING  LIFT.     A  lift  used  for  topping  up  the  end  of  a  boom. 

TOP-TIMBERS.  The  highest  timbers  on  a  vessel's  side,  being 
above  the  futtocks. 

TOSS  To  throw  an  oar  out  of  the  rowlock,  and  raise  it  perpen- 
dicularly on  its  end.  and  lay  it  down  in  the  boat,  with  its 
blade  forward. 


THE    MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  253 

TOUCH.     A  sail  is  said  to  touch,  when  the  wind  strikes  the  leech 

so' as  to  shflke   it  a  little. 

Luff  and  touch  her!     To  bring  the  vessel  up  and  see  how  near 
she  will  go  to  the  wind. 

TOW.     To   draw   a   vessel   along   in   the   water. 

TRAIN -TACKLE.     The   tackle  used  for   running  guns  in  and   out. 

TRANSOMS.  Pieces  of  timber  going  across  the  stern-post,  to 
which  they  are  bolted.  Raised  platforms  in  small  vessels 
and  yachts,  used  for  seats,  etc. 

TRANSOM -KNEES.  Knees  bolted  to  the  transoms  and  after  tim- 
bers. 

TRAVELLER.  An  iron  ring,  fitted  so  as  to  slip  up  and  down 
rigging. 

TREENAILS,  or  TRUNNELS.  Long  wooden  pins,  used  for  nail- 
ing a  plank  to  a  timber. 

TREND.  The  lower  end  of  the  shank  of  an  anchor,  being  the 
same  distance  on  the  shank  from  the  throat  that  the  arm 
measures  from  the  throat  to  the  bill. 

TRESTLE-TREES.  Two  strong  pieces  of  timber,  placed  hori- 
zontally and  fore-and-aft  on  opposite  sides  of  a  mast-head, 
to  support  the  cross-trees  and  top,  and  for  the  fid  of  the 
mast  above  to  rest  upon. 

TRIATIC  STAY.  A  rope  secured  at  each  end  to  the  heads  of  the 
fore  and  main  masts,  with  thimbles  spliced  into  its  bight, 
to  hook  the  stay  tackles  to. 

TRICE.     To  haul  up  by  means  of  a  rope. 

TRICK.  The  time  allotted  to  a  man  to  stand  at  the  helm.  A 
trick  at  the  wheel. 

TRIM.  The  condition  of  a  vessel,  with  reference  to  her  cargo  and 
ballast.  A  vessel  is  trimmed  by  the  head  or  by  the  stern. 
In  ballast  trim,  is  when  she  has  only  ballast  on  board.  Al- 
so, to  arrange  the  sails  by  the  braces  with  reference  to  the 
wind. 

TRIP.     To  raise  an  anchor  clear  of  the  bottom. 

TRIPPING  LINE.  A  line  used  for  tripping  a  spar  in  sending  it 
down. 

TRUCK.  A  circular  piece  of  wood,  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
masts  of  a  vessel.  It  has  small  holes  or  sheaves  in  it  for 
signal  halyards  to  be  rove  through.  Also,  the  wheel  of  a 
gun-carriage. 

TRUNNIONS.  The  arms  on  each  side  of  a  cannon  by  which  it 
rests  upon  the  carriage,  and  on  which,  as  an  axis,  it  is  ele- 
vated or  depressed. 

TRUSS.  The  rope  by  which  the  centre  of  a  lower  yard  is  kept 
in  toward  the  mast. 


254  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

TRYSAIL.  A  fore-and-aft  sail,  set  with  a  boom  and  gaff,  and 
noisting  on  a  small  mast  abaft  the  lower  mast,  called  a 
trysail-mast.  This  name  is  generally  confined  to  the  sail 
so  carried  at  the  mainmast  of  a  full-rigged  brig;  those  car- 
ried at  the  foremast  and  at  the  mainmast  of  a  ship  or  bark 
being  called  spencers,  and  those  that  are  at  the  mizzenmast 
of  a  ship  or  bark,  spankers. 

TUMBLING  HOME.  A  ship's  sides  when  they  fall  in  above  the 
bends.  The  opposite  of  wall-sided. 

TURK'S    HEAD.     An    ornamental   knot. 

TURN.  Passing  a  rope  around  a  pin  or  kevel,  to  keep  it  fast. 
Also,  two  crosses  in  a  cable.  To  turn  in  or  turn  out,  nauti- 
cal terms  for  going  to  rest  in  a  berth  or  hammock,  and  get- 
ting up.  Turn  up!  The  order  given  to  send  the  men  up 
from  between  decks. 

TYE.  A  rope  connected  with  a  yard,  to  the  other  end  of  which 
a  tackle  is  attached  for  hoisting. 

TYPHOON.     A   hurricane   in    the   Eastern  "seas. 
UNBEND.     To  cast  off  or  to  untie. 

UNION.  The  upper  inner  corner  of  an  ensign.  The  rest  of  the 
flag  is  called  the  fly.  The  union  of  the  U.  S.  ensign  is  a  blue 
field  with  white  stars,  and  the  fly  is  composed  of  alternate 
white  and  red  stripes. 

Union-down.  The  situation  of  a  flag  when  it  is  hoisted  up- 
side down,  bringing  the  union  down  instead  of  up.  Used  as 
a  signal  of  distress. 

Union -jack.  A  small  flag,  containing  only  the  union,  without 
the  fly,  usually  hoisted  at  the  bowsprit-cap. 

UNMOOR.  To  heave  up  one  anchor  so  that  the  vessel  may  ride 
at  a  single  anchor. 

VANE.  A  fly  at  the  mast-head,  revolving  on  a  spindle,  to  show 
the  direction  of  the  wind. 

VANG.  A  rope  leading  from  the  peak  of  the  gaff  of  a  fore-and- 
aft  sail  to  the  rail-  on  each  side,  used  for  steadying  the  gaff. 

VEER.     The   wind   when    it   changes.     Also,    to   slack   a   cable   and 

let  it  run  out. 

To  veer  and  haul,  is  to  haul  and  slack  alternately,  until  the 
vessel  gets  headway. 

VIOL.  A  larger  messenger  sometimes  used  in  weighing  an  anchor 
by  a  capstan.  Also,  the  block  through  which  the  messenger 
passes. 

WAIST.     That   part   of  the   upper   deck  between   the   quarter-deck 

and  forecastle. 

Waisters.  Green  hands,  or  broken-down  seamen,  placed  in  the 
waist  of  a  man-of-war. 

WAKE.  The  track  or  path  a  vessel  leaves  behind  her  when  sail- 
ing. 

WALES.  Strong  planks  in  a  vessel's  sides,  running  her  entire 
length  fore-and-aft. 

WALL.     A  knot  put  on  the  end  of  a  rope. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL  255 

WALL-SIDED.  A  vessel  is  wall-sided  when  her  sides  run  up  per- 
pendicularly from  the  bends.  The  opposite  to  tumbling  home 
or  flaring  out. 

WARD- ROOM.  The  room  in  a  vessel  of  war  in  which  the  com- 
missioned officers  live. 

WARE,  or  WEAR.  To  turn  a  vessel  around,  so  that,  from  hav- 
ing the  wind  on  one  side,  the  wind  will  be  on  the  other  side, 
carrying  her  stern  around  by  the  wind.  In  tacking,  the 
same  result  is  produced  by  carrying  a  vessel's  head  around 
by  the  wind. 

WARP.  To  move  a  vessel  from  one  place  to  another  by  means  of 
a  rope  made  fast  to  some  fixed  object,  or  to  a  kedge.  A 
warp  is  a  rope  used  for  warping.  If  the  warp  is  bent  to  a 
kedge  which  is  let  go,  and  the  vessel  is  hove  ahead  by  the 
capstan  or  windlass,  it  would  be  called  kedging. 

WASH-BOARD.  Light  pieces  of  board  placed  above  the  gunwale 
of  a  boat. 

WATCH.  A  division  of  time  on  board  ship.  There  are  seven 
watches  in  a  day,  reckoning  from  12  M.  round  through  the 
24  hours,  five  of  them  being  of  four  hours  each,  and  the  two 
others,  called  dog  watches,  of  two  hours  each,  viz.,  from  4  to 
6,  and  from  6  to  8  P.  M.  Also,  a  certain  portion  of  a  ship's 
company,  appointed  to  stand  a  given  length  of  time.  In  the 
merchant  service  all  hands  are  divided  into  two  watches, 
port  and  starboard,  with  a  mate  to  command  each.  A  buoy 
is  said  to  watch  when  it  floats  on  the  surface. 

WATCH -AND- WATCH.     The  arrangement  by  which  the  watches 
are   alternated   every   other   four   hours.     In   distinction   from 
keeping  all  hands  during  one  or  more  watches. 
Anchor  watch,   a  small  watch  of  one  or  two  men,   kept  while 
in   port. 

WATCH  HO!  WATCH!  The  cry  of  the  man  that  heaves  the 
deep-sea-lead. 

WATCH -TACKLE.  A  small  luff  purchase  with  a  short  fall,  the 
double  block  having  a  tail  to  it  and  the  single  one  a  hook. 
Used  about  deck. 

WATER   SAIL.     A  save-all,   set   under   the   swinging-boom. 

WATER-WAYS.  Long  pieces  of  timber,  running  fore-and-aft  on 
both  sides,  connecting  the  deck  with  the  vessel's  sides.  The 
scuppers  run  through  them  to  let  the  water  off. 

WEATHER.     In   the  direction   from  which   the  wind   blows. 

A  ship  carries  a  weather  helm  when  she  tends  to  come  up  into 

the  wind. 
Weather  gage.     A  vessel  has  the  weather  gage  of  another  when 

she   is   to  windward   of   her. 
A  weatherly  ship,  is  one  that  works  well  to  windward,  making 

but  little  leeway. 

WEATHER-BITT.  To  take  an  additional  turn  with  a  cable  round 
the  windlass-end. 

WEATHER   ROLL.     The  roll  which  a  ship  makes  to  windward. 
WEIGH.     To  lift  up,  as,  to  weigh  an  anchor  or  a  mast. 

WHEEL.  The  instrument  attached  to  the  rudder  by  which  a  ves- 
sel is  steered. 


256  THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL 

WHIP.  A  purchase  formed  by  a  rope  rove  through  a  single  block. 
To  whip,  is  to  hoist  by  a  whip.  Also,  to  secure  the  end  of 
a  rope  from  fagging  by  seizing  of  twine.  Whip-upon-whip. 
One  whip  applied  to  the  fall  of  another. 

WHISKERS.     The  cross-trees  to  a  bowsprit. 

WINCH.  A  purchase  formed  by  a  horizontal  spindle  or  shaft  with 
a  wheel  or  crank  at  the  end. 

WINDLASS.     The  machine  used  to  weigh  the  anchor  by. 

WIND- RODE.  The  situation  of  a  vessel  at  anchor  when  she 
swings  and  rides  by  the  force  of  the  wind,  instead  of  by 
the  tide  or  current. 

WING.  That  part  of  the  hold  or  between-decks  which  is  next  the 
side. 

WINGERS.     Casks  stowed  in  the  wings  of  a  vessel. 

WING- AND- WING.  The  situation  of  a  fore-and-aft  vessel  when 
she  is  going  dead  before  the  wind,  with  her  foresail  on  one 
side  and  her  mainsail  on  the  other. 

WITHE,  or  WYTHE.  An  iron  band  fitted  on  the  end  of  a  boom 
or  mast,  with  a  ring  or  eye  to  it,  through  which  another 
boom  or  mast  or  rigging  is  made  fast. 

WOOLD.     To  wind  a  piece  of  rope  around  a  spar. 

WORK  UP.  To  draw  the  yarns  from  old  rigging  and  make  them 
into  spunyarn,  foxes,  sennit,  etc.  Also,  a  phrase  for  keep- 
ing a  crew  constantly  at  work  upon  the  needless  matters, 
and  in  all  weathers,  and  beyond  their,  usual  hours,  for  pun- 
ishment. 

WORM.  To  fill  up  between  the  lays  of  a  rope  with  small  stuff 
wound  around  spirally.  Stuff  so  wound  round  is  called 
worming. 

WRING.  To  bend  or  strain  a  mast  by  setting  the  rigging  up  too 
taut. 

WRING- BOLTS.     Bolts   that   secure    the    planks   to   the   timbers. 

WRING-STAVES.     Strong   pieces   of   plank   used   with   the   wring- 
bolts. 
YACHT.     A   vessel    of   pleasure    or    state. 

YARD.  A  long  piece  of  timber,  tapering  slightly  toward  the  ends, 
and  hung  by  the  centre  to  a  mast,  to  spread  the  square 
sails  upon. 

YARD-ARM.     The  extremities  of  a  yard. 

YARD-ARM  AND  YARD-ARM.  The  situation  of  two  vessels,  ly- 
ing alongside  each  other  so  that  their  yard-arms  cross  or 
touch. 

YAW.     The  motion  of  a  vessel  when  she  goes  off  her  course. 

YAWL.     A  vessel  with  two  masts,  the  small  one  aft. 

YELLOW   FLAG.     Signifies  vessels  in  quarantine. 

YEOMAN.  A  man  employed  in  a  vessel  of  war  to  take  charge  of 
a  store-room;  as,  boatswain's  yeoman,  the  man  that  has 
charge  of  the  stores,  of  rigging,  etc. 

YOKE.  A  piece  of  wood  placed  across  the  head  of  a  boat's  rud- 
der with  a  rope  attached  to  each  end,  by  which  the  boat  la 
steered. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE    MANUAL,  257 

QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 

RULES  OF  THE  ROAD. 


1.  UPON  WHAT  WATERS  SHOULD  THE  INTERNATIONAL 
RULES    FOR    PREVENTING    COLLISIONS    AT    SEA    BE    FOL- 
LOWED? 

Ans.  The  international  rules  should  be  followed  by  all  vessels 
upon  the  high  seas  and  all  waters  connected  therewith,  navigable 
by  sea-going  vessels. 

2.  UPON     WHAT     WATERS     ARE      SPECIAL     RULES     IN 
FORCE? 

Ans.  Upon  such  inland  waters  of  the  United  States  that  are 
highways  of  commerce. 

3.  UNDER  WHAT  CONDITION  MAY  A  STEAM  VESSEL  BE 
CONSIDERED    A    SAILING    VESSEL    AS    CONTEMPLATED    BY 
THE  RULES? 

Ans.     When  she  is  under  sail  and  not  using  her  motive  power. 

4.  IF  A  STEAM  VESSEL  IS  UNDER  SAIL,  AND  USING  HER 
MOTIVE    POWER,    IS    SHE   OBLIGED   TO   KEEP   OUT    OF   THllJ 
WAY   OF   SAILING   VESSELS? 

Ans.     Yes. 

5.  WHAT  DOES  THE  TERM  STEAM  VESSEL  INCLUDE  AS 
CONTEMPLATED   BY   THE   RULES? 

Ans.     Every    vessel    propelled    by    machinery. 

6.  WHEN    IS    A    VESSEL   CONSIDERED    UNDERWAY? 
Ans.     When  she  is  not  at  anchor  or  made  fast  to  the  shore  or 

aground. 

7.  WHEN  ARE  VESSELS  REQUIRED  TO  CARRY  LIGHTS? 
Ans.     Between  the  hours  of  sunset  and  sunrise. 

STEERING   AND  SAILING   RULES. 

1.  WHEN    TWO    STEAM    VESSELS    ARE    MEETING    HEAD 
AND    HEAD    WHAT    IS    THE    RESPECTIVE    DUTY    OF    EACH 
VESSEL? 

Ans.  Change  course  to  starboard  passing  on  the  port  side  of 
each  other. 

2.  WHAT  PASSING  SIGNALS  SHOULD  BE  EXCHANGED  IN 
THE  ABOVE   SITUATION? 

Ans.  Either  vessel  shall  give  one  short  and  distinct  blast  of 
the  steam  whistle  which  shall  be  answered  by  the  other  vessel. 

3.  IF  THE  COURSE  OF  EACH  VESSEL  IS  SO  FAR  ON  THE 
STARBOARD  OF  EACH  OTHER  AS  NOT  TO  BE  MEETING 
HEAD  AND  HEAD,  WHAT  IS  THE  RESPECTIVE  DUTY  OF 
EACH  VESSEL? 

Ans.  Either  vessel  shall  give  two  short  and  distinct  blasts  of 
the  steam  whistle  which  shall  be  answered  by  the  other  vessel 
passing  on  the  starboard  side  of  each  other. 

4.  IF   TWO    STEAM   VESSELS    ARE    APPROACHING   EACH 
OTHER  AND  EITHER  VESSEL  FAILS  TO  UNDERSTAND  THE 
COURSE    OR   INTENTION   OF     THE     OTHER,     WHAT     SIGNAL 
SHALL  BE  GIVEN? 

Ans.  The  danger  signal  which  is  several  short  blasts,  not  less 
than  four. 

5.  WHEN    TWO    STEAM   VESSELS    ARE    CROSSING    EACH 
OTHER'S    COURSE,   WHAT   IS     THE     RESPECTIVE     DUTY     OF 
EACH  VESSEL? 


258  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

Ans.  The  vessel  which  has  the  other  on  her  own  starboard 
side  shall  keep  out  of  the  way.  If  necessary  she  shall  slacken 
speed,  stop  and  reverse. 

The  other  vessel  shall  keep  her  course  and  speed. 

6.  IN  THE  ABOVE  SITUATION  STATE  WHICH  VESSEL  IK 
TERMED   THE    PRIVILEGED   VESSEL? 

Ans.  The  vessel  which  has  the  right  of  way  and  is  required 
to  keep  her  course  and  speed. 

7.  IN      THE      ABOVE      SITUATION      WHICH     VESSEL      IS 
TERMED  THE  BURDENED  VESSEL? 

Ans.     The  vessel  which  is  obliged  to  keep  out  of  the  way. 

8.  WHEN   A   STEAM   VESSEL   AND     A     SAILING     VESSEL 
ARE   PROCEEDING  IN   SUCH  A  DIRECTION   AS   TO   INVOLVE 
RISK      OP  COLLISION   WHICH  VESSEL  HAS   THE   RIGHT   OP 
WAY? 

Ans.     The  sailing  vessel. 

9.  WHEN   IS   A  VESSEL   SAID   TO   BE   OVERTAKING   AN- 
OTHER? 

Ans.  Every  vessel  coming  up  with  another  vessel  more  than 
two  points  abaft  her  beam  is  an  overtaking  vessel. 

10.  WHICH  VESSEL  IS  THE  BURDENED  VESSEL  IN  THIS 
SITUATION? 

Ans.  The  vessel  which  is  coming  up  astern  of  the  other;  that 
is  to  say  the  overtaking  vessel  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the 
vessel  being  overtaken. 

11.  WHEN    IS    A    SAILING    VESSEL    OBLIGED    TO    KEEP 
OUT  OP  THE  WAY  OF  A  STEAM  VESSEL? 

Ans.     1.     When  she  is  overtaking  a  steam  vessel. 

2.  When  the  steam  vessel  is  not  under  command. 

3.  When  a  steam  vessel  is  laying  or  picking  up  a  felegraph 
cab'e. 

12.  WHAT  IS  THE  NARROW  CHANNEL  RULE? 

Ans.  In  narrow  channels  every  steam  vessel  shall  keep  on  the 
starboard  side  of  the  channel  or  fairway  when  it  is  safe  and  prac- 
ticable. 

13.  WHAT   RULES   SHOULD   BE   FOLLOWED  WHEN   TWO 
SAILING    VESSELS    ARE    APPROACHING    ONE    ANOTHER    IN 
ORDER  TO  AVOID  THE  DANGER  OF  COLLISION? 

Ans.     One   shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  other  as   follows: 

A.  A  vessel  which  is  running  free  shall  keep    out    of    the 
way  of  a  vessel  which  is  close  hauled. 

B.  A  vessel  which  is  close  hauled   on   the   port  tack  shall 
keep  out  of  the  way  of  a  vessel  which  is  close  hauled  on 
the   starboard   tack. 

C.  When  both  are  running  free  with  the  wind  on  different 
sides,   the  vessel  which  has  the  wind   on  the   port   side 
shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  other. 

D.  When  both  are  running  free  with  the  wind  on  the  same 
side,  the  vessel  which  is  to  windward  shall  keep  out  of 
the  way  of  the  vessel  which  is  to  leeward. 

E.  A  vessel  which  has  the  wind  aft  shall  keep  out  of  the 
way  of  the  other  vessel. 

14.  HOW  MAY  RISK  OP  COLLISION  BE  ASCERTAINED? 

Ans.  By  carefully  watching  the  compass  bearing  of  the  ap- 
proaching vessel.  If  the  bearing  does  not  appreciably  change, 
such  risk  should  be  deemed  to  exist. 

15  IP  YOUR  VESSEL'S  ENGINE  IS  GOING  PULL  SPEED 
ASTERN  WHAT  SIGNAL  DO  YOU  BLOW? 

Ans.     Three  short  blasts  of  the  steam  whistle. 


THE    MERCHANT    MARINE     MANUAL  259 

MASTHEAD    LIGHTS. 

1.  WHERE    MUST    THE    MASTHEAD    LIGHT    BE    PLACED 
ON   A   SEA-GOING   STEAM   VESSEL? 

Ans.  On  or  in  front  of  the  foremast,  or  if  the  vessel  is  without 
a  foremast,  in  the  fore  part  of  the  vessel. 

2.  DESCRIBE   THE   MASTHEAD   LIGHT. 

Ans.  It  is  a  white  light  so  placed  as  to  show  an  unbroken  light 
through  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  20  points  of  the  compass;  that  is 
from  right  ahead  to  two  points  abaft  the  beam  on  either  side,  and 
shall  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least 
five  miles. 

3.  AT    WHAT    HEIGHT    ABOVE    THE    HULL    MUST    THE 
MASTHEAD  LIGHT  BE   CARRIED? 

Ans.     At   a  -height   of  not   less   than    20   feet. 

4.  IP  THE  BREADTH  OP  THE  VESSEL  EXCEEDS  20  FEET, 
AT  WHAT  HEIGHT  SHALL  IT  BE  CARRIED? 

Ans.  At  a  height  above  the  hull  not  less  than  the  vessel's 
breadth,  provided,  however,  that  it  need  not  be  carried  at  a  height 
to  exceed  40  feet. 

5.  WHAT  ADDITIONAL  MASTHEAD  LIGHT  MAY  A  STEAM 
VESSEL  CARRY? 

Ans.  A  second  light  may  be  carried  on  the  main  mast  or  in 
the  after  part  of  the  vessel.  It  must  be  of  the  same  character  and 
shall  be  not  less  than  15  feet  higher  than  the  forward  light.  The 
vertical  distance  between  these  lights  shall  be  less  than  the  hori- 
zontal distance,  and  both  lights  must  be  placed  in  line  with  the 

6.  WHAT     IS     THE     ADVANTAGE     OP     CARRYING     TWO 
MASTHEAD    LIGHTS    (RANGE    LIGHTS)? 

Ans.  So  that  other  vessels  may  determine  the  direction  in 
which  the  vessel  with  the  range  lights  is  heading.  If  head  on,  the 
lights  appear  vertical,  if  broadside  on,  the  horizontal  distance  is 
greater.  A  change  of  course  is  quickly  noted  by  other  vessels. 

SIDE    LIGHTS. 

1.  WHAT  LIGHT  IS  CARRIED  ON  THE  STARBOARD  SIDE 
OP  A  STEAM  VESSEL? 

Ans.     A  green   light. 

2.  WHAT  LIGHT  IS   CARRIED  ON   THE   PORT   SIDE  OP  A 
STEAM  VESSEL? 

Ans.     A  red  light. 

3.  DESCRIBE      THE      ARRANGEMENT      OP     THE      SIDE 
LIGHTS. 

Ans.  Side  lights  must  be  so  constructed  and  fixed  as  to  show 
a  clear  and  unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  10  points 
of  the  compass  on  their  respective  sides,  that  is  from  right  ahead 
to  two  points  abaft  the  beam,  and  shall  be  of  such  a  character  as 
to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

4.  WHAT    LIGHTS   ARE    CARRIED    BY    SAILING   VESSELS 
OR  VESSELS  BEING  TOWED? 

Ans.  Sailing  vessels  and  vessels  being  towed  are  required  to 
carry  the  side  lights,  but  shall  not  carry  the  masthead  lights.  Such 
vessels  when  being  overtaken  by  another  vessel  shall  show  a  flare- 
up  or  a  fixed  white  light.  The  fixed  white  light  shall  show  over 
an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  12  points  of  the  compass,  that  is  for  6 
points  from  right  aft  on  each  side,  and  shall  be  visible  at  a  distance 
of  at  least  one  mile. 


260  THE    MERCHANT     MARINE    MANUAL 

TOWING   LIGHTS. 

1.  WHAT    LIGHTS   ARE    REQUIRED   TO   BE    CARRIED   BY 
A   STEAM   VESSEL  WHEN   TOWING? 

Ans.  A  steam  vessel  when  towing  another  vessel  shall  carry 
in  addition  to  her  side  lights  two  bright  white  lights  in  a  vertical 
line,  one  above  the  other  not  less  than  six  feet  apart. 

2.  WHEN  ARE  TOWING  STEAM  VESSELS  REQUIRED  TO 
CARRY   MORE   THAN  TWO  LIGHTS? 

Ans.  When  towing  more  than  one  vessel  if  the  length  of  the 
tow,  measured  from  the  stern  of  the  towing  steamer  to  the  stern 
of  the  last  vessel  towed,  exceeds  six  hundred  feet. 

3.  DESCRIBE  THE  CHARACTER  OP  THE  TOWING  LIGHTS 
AND  WHERE  CARRIED. 

Ans.  Each  light  shall  be  of  the  same  construction  and  char- 
acter as  the  masthead  light  of  a  steam  vessel  and  shall  be  carried 
in  the  same  position.  The  additional  light  may  be  carried  at  a 
height  of  not  less  than  14  feet  above  the  hull. 

4.  WHAT  OTHER  LIGHT  MAY  BE   CARRIED  ON  A  TOW- 
ING STEAM  VESSEL? 

Ans.  A  small  white  light  may  be  carried  abaft  the  funnel  or 
aftermast  for  the  vessel  being  towed  to  steer  by,  but  -  such  light 
shall  not  be  visible  forward  of  the  beam. 

SPECIAL  LIGHTS. 

1.  WHAT  SPECIAL  LIGHTS  ARE  REQUIRED  FOR  A  VES- 
SEL NOT  UNDER  COMMAND? 

Ans.  Two  red  lights  in  a  vertical  line,  one  over  the  other,  not 
less  than  six  feet  apart,  and  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  visible 
all  around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

2.  AT    WHAT    HEIGHT    AND     POSITION     SHALL     THESE 
LIGHTS  BE   CARRIED? 

Ans.  At  the  same  height  and  position  as  the  masthead  light 
of  a  steam  vessel. 

3.  SHALL  A  STEAM  VESSEL  NOT  UNDER  COMMAND  AL- 
SO DISPLAY  HER  MASTHEAD  LIGHT? 

Ans.  A  steam  vessel  riot  under  command  shall  not  display 
her  masthead  light. 

4.  ARE    THE    SIDE    LIGHTS   REQUIRED    TO    BE    CARRIED 
ON  A  VESSEL  NOT  UNDER  COMMAND? 

Ans.  If  the  vessel  is  making  way  through  water  the  side  lights 
are  required;  when  not  making  way  through  the  water  the  side 
lights  shall  be  extinguished. 

5.  WHAT  SPECIAL  DAY  MARKS  SHALL  BE  CARRIED  ON 
A  VESSEL  NOT  UNDER  COMMAND? 

Ans.  In  the  daytime  a  vessel  not  under  command  shall  carry 
two  black  balls  or  shapes  each  two  feet  in  diameter,  placed  in  a 
vertical  line,  one  over  the  other,  where  they  can  best  be  seen,  and 
shall  be  not  less  than  six  feet  apart. 

6.  ARE    SPECIAL   LIGHTS    PROVIDED   FOR   OTHER   VES- 
SELS? 

Ans.  Yes,  special  lights  are  provided  for  vessels  laying  or  pick- 
ing up  telegraph  cables,  also  for  the  following  vessels: 

A.  Small   vessels. 

B.  Small  steam  vessels,  sail  vessels  and  open  boats. 

C.  Pilot  vessels.. 

D.  Fishing  vessels. 

Rules  concerning  these  lights  will  be  found  in  the  International 
and  Inland  Pilot  Rules. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  261 

ANCHOR   LIGHTS. 

1.  WHAT    LIGHT    IS    REQUIRED    TO    BE    DISPLAYED    ON 
A    VESSEL    UNDER    ONE    HUNDRED    AND    FIFTY    FEET    IN 
LENGTH,    WHILE   AT   ANCHOR? 

Ans.     A  white  light. 

2.  DESCRIBE   ITS   CHARACTERISTICS. 

Ans.     It  shall  be  a  clear  and  unbroken  light,  visible  all  around 
the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at  least  one  mile. 

3.  WHERE  IS  IT  LOCATED? 

Ans.     Forward  where   it  can  best  be   seen  at  a  height  not   to 
exceed  20  feet  above  the  hull. 

4.  WHAT    LIGHTS    ARE    REQUIRED    TO    BE    DISPLAYED 
ON  A  VESSEL  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY  FEET  IN  LENGTH 
OR  UPWARD,   WHILE  AT  ANCHOR? 

Ans.     Two  white  lights  of  the    same    character    as    described 
above. 

5.  WHERE    ARE    THESE   LIGHTS    TO    BE    LOCATED? 
Ans.     One    shall    be    located    forward    at   a   height    of   not    less 

than  20  feet,  and  not  exceeding  40  feet  above  the  hull,  the  other 
shall  be  located  near  the  stern  of  the  vessel  at  least  fifteen  feel 
lower  than. the  forward  light. 

VESSELS   AGROUND. 

1.      WHAT   LIGHTS    MUST    BE   DISPLAYED   BY   A   VESSEL 
AGROUND  IN  OR  NEAR  A  FAIRWAY? 

Ans.     The   same  lights  as  a  vessel  at  anchor  and   in   addition 
the  two  red  lights  required  for  a  vessel  not  under  command. 

SPECIAL  SIGNAL. 

1.  MAY  A  VESSEL  USE  SPECIAL  SIGNALS  IN  ORDER  TO 
ATTRACT  ATTENTION? 

Ans.     Yes.     A  flare-up  light  or   detonating  signal   that   cannot 
be  mistaken  for  a  distress  signal. 

2.  WHAT   DAY  MARK   SHALL  A   STEAM  VESSEL  UNDER 
SAIL  BUT  WITH  HER  FUNNEL  UP,   DISPLAY? 

Ans.     A  black  ball  or  shape  in  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel 
where  it  can  best  be  seen. 

DISTRESS    SIGNAL. 

1.  WHEN  A  VESSEL  IS  IN  DISTRESS  AND  REQUIRES  AS- 
SISTANCE, WHAT  ARE  THE   SIGNALS   TO  BE  USED  OR  DIS- 
PLAYED  IN   THE   DAYTIME? 

Ans.     1st.     A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at  intervals  of 
about  a  minute. 

2d.     The  International  Code  Signal,  N.  C. 
3d.     The  distance  signal  consisting  of  a  square  flag  having 
a  ball  or  something  resembling  a  ball  either  above  or 
below  it. 
4th.    A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fog  signal  apparatus. 

2.  WHAT  ARE   THE  DISTRESS   SIGNALS  AT   NIGHT? 
Ans.     1st.     A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at  intervals  of 

about  a  minute. 

2d.  Flames  on  the  vessel  (as  from  a  burning  tar  barrel,  oil 
barrel,  etc.). 

3d.  Rockets  or  shells  throwing  stars  of  any  color  or  de- 
scription fired  one  at  a  time  at  short  intervals. 

4th.  Continuous  sounding  with  any  fog  signal  apparatus. 


262  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 

SOUND   SIGNAL   FOR   FOG,    ETC. 

1.  WHAT  IS   MEANT  BY  A  PROLONGED   BLAST? 
Ans.     A  blast  of  from   four  to  six  seconds'   duration. 

2.  WHEN   SHALL  FOG   SIGNALS   BE   USED? 

Ans.     In  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,   or  heavy  rainstorms. 

3.  WHAT    IS    THE   FOG   SIGNAL     OF     A     STEAM     VESSEL 
UNDERWAY? 

Ans.  A  prolonged  blast  of  the  steam  whistle  at  intervals  of 
not  more  than  two  minutes  on  the  high  seas,  and  at  intervals  of 
not  more  than  one  minute  on  inland  waters. 

4.  WHAT    IS    THE    FOG    SIGNAL    OF    A    STEAM    VESSEL 
WITH  ENGINE   STOPPED  AND  HAVING  NO  WAY  ON  HER? 

Ans.  Two  prolonged  blasts  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  two 
minutes,  with  an  interval  of  one  second  between. 

5.  WHAT  IS  THE  FOG  SIGNAL  OF  A  STEAM  VESSEL  NOT 
UNDER  COMMAND? 

Ans.  At  intervals  of  not  more  than  two  minutes  she  shall 
sound  three  blasts,  namely,  one  prolonged  blast  followed  by  two 
short  blasts. 

6.  WHAT  IS  THE  FOG  SIGNAL  OF  A  TOWING  VESSEL? 
Ans.     Three    blasts,    namely,    one    prolonged    blast    followed    by 

two  short  blasts  at  intervals  of  not  exceeding  two  minutes. 

7.  WHAT  IS  THE  SIGNAL  OF  A  VESSEL  BEING  TOWED? 
Ans.     She   may  give   the   same   signal  as   the   towing  vessel   on 

the  fog  horn,  but  shall  not  give  any  other. 

8.  WHAT  IS  THE  FOG  SIGNAL  OF  A  SAILING  VESSEL? 

A.  Underway  on  the  starboard  tack. 

Ans.  One  blast  of  the  fog  horn  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
one  minute. 

B.  Underway  on  the  port  tack. 

Ans.  Two  blasts  of  the  fog  horn  in  succession  at  intervals  of 
not  more  than  one  minute. 

C.  With  the  wind  abaft  the  beam. 

Ans.  Three  blasts  in  succession  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
one  minute. 

9.  WHAT     IS     THE     FOG     SIGNAL     OF     A     VESSEL     AT 
ANCHOR? 

Ans.  A  vessel  at  anchor  shall  ring  the  bell  rapidly  for  aboui 
five  seconds  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  one  minute. 

SPEED    IN    FOG. 

1.  WHAT    IS    THE    DUTY    OF    EVERY    VESSEL    IN    FOG. 
MIST,    FALLING   SNOW,    OR   HEAVY   RAINSTORM? 

Ans.     To  proceed  at  a  moderate  speed. 

2.  WHAT   WOULD   YOU   DO   IF  YOU  WERE   IN   COMMAND 
OF  A  STEAM  VESSEL  AND  YOU  HEARD  THE  FOG  SIGNAL  OF 
ANOTHER  VESSEL  FORWARD   OF  YOUR  BEAM,   BUT   COULD 
NOT  ASCERTAIN  HER  POSITION? 

Ans.  Stop  the  engines  and  navigate  with  caution  until  the 
danger  of  collision  was  over. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  263 

SEAMANSHIP. 


1.  HOW   DO    YOU   DETERMINE    THE    SIZE    OP   A    CABLE? 
Ans.     By  measuring  the  diameter  of  the  iron  forming  the  link. 

2.  WHAT   IS    THE    LENGTH   BETWEEN    SHACKLES   IN   A 
CABLE? 

Ans.     Fifteen   (15)   fathoms. 

3  HOW  ARE  THE  SHACKLES  PLACED  IN  A  CABLE, 
THAT  IS  TO  SAY,  WHICH  PART  GOES  OUT  THROUGH  THE 
HAWSEPIPE  FIRST  WHEN  THE  ANCHOR  IS  LET  GO? 

Ans.  The  round  part  of  the  shackle  should  be  toward  the 
anchor,  therefore  the  round  part  goes  through  the  Hawsepipe  first. 

4.  HOW  CAN  YOU  TELL  WHEN  A  SHIP  IS  HOVE   SHORT 
TO  HER  ANCHOR? 

Ans.     The  chain  is  up  and  down  when  the  ship  is  hove  short. 

5.  WHEN    COMING    TO    ANCHOR    IF    THE    WEATHER    IS 
MODERATE,  WHAT  IS  THE  LEAST  AMOUNT  OF  CABLE  YOU 
SHOULD   PAY   OUT? 

Ans.     At  least  three  times  the  depth  of  water. 

6.  HOW    IS    A     SHIP    MOORED     TO     TWO     ANCHORS     (30 
fathoms)  ? 

Ans.  Let  go  starboard  anchor  and  pay  out  about  sixty  fath- 
oms of  cable.  Then  let  go  port  anchor  and  pay  out  thirty  fathoms. 
Next  heave  in  thirty  fathoms  of  the  starboard  cable  and  the  ship 
is  then  moored  between  two  anchors,  with  one  anchor  leading  ahead 
and  the  other  astern.  This  is  the  best  way  to  anchor  a  vessel  in  a 
crowded  roadstead. 

7.  HOW   CAN    YOU    TELL   WHEN   A   SHIP   IS    LAYING    TO 
TWO  ANCHORS? 

Ans.     The  cables  on  both  anchors  lead  out  ahead. 

8.  IF  YOUR  VESSEL  IS  ASHORE  AND  YOU  WISH  TO  RUN 
OUT  AN  ANCHOR  TO  HEAVE  THE  VESSEL  OFF,  HOW  WOULD 
YOU  GO   ABOUT   IT? 

Ans.  I  would  use  two  boats,  placing  two  spars  across  the  gun- 
wales of  both  boats,  lashed  down  to  the  thwarts.  The  anchor 
should  hang  to  the  spars  between  the  boats;  a  hawser  should  be 
bent  to  the  anchor  with  a  sufficient  amount  coiled  in  the  boats  so  as 
to  pay  out  from  the  boats  when  pulling  away  from  the  ship. 

9.  WHEN   COMING   INTO    HARBOR   IN   A    STEAM   VESSEL 
WITH   A    STRONG  FAIR   TIDE,    HOW   WOULD   YOU   COME    TO 
ANCHOR? 

Ans.  Before  arriving  at  the  anchorage  I  would  let  the  way 
run  off  my  vessel,  and  when  ready  to  anchor,  round  to,  head  to  the 
tide  and  let  go  the  anchor  as  soon  as  the  vessel  begins  to  go  astern. 

10.  HOW  CAN  YOU  TELL  WHEN  A  VESSEL  IS  DRAGGING? 

Ans.  By  the  bearing  of  objects  ashore;  by  dropping  the  lead- 
line to  the  bottom  and  noting  if  the  vessel  drops  astern  and  also 
by  the  vibration  of  the  chain  forward  of  the  windlass. 

11.  HOW  WOULD  YOU  TURN  A  STEAMER  AROUND  WITH 
A  RIGHT  HANDED  PROPELLER  IN  A  NARROW  CHANNEL? 

Ans.  Hard  aport  the  helm  and  put  engines  full  speed  ahead. 
When  she  gathers  way  order  full  speed  astern  and  put  helm  amid- 
ships. Continue  the  maneuvering  ahead  and  astern  until  the  ves- 
sel is  around. 

A  ship  with  a  large  rudder  will  frequently  come  around  by  go- 
ing full  speed  ahead  and  before  she  gathers  headway,  slowing  the 
engine  to  dead  slow.  The  last  mentioned  maneuver  is  always  best 


264  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL/  ^ 

with  the  wind  on  the  starboard  bow.  It  is  well  to  also  remember 
that  if  the  wind  is  in  the  right  direction  the  anchor  can  be  used, 
if  no  current  exists  to  prevent  turning. 

12.  IF    ABOUT    TO    ENTER    DRY    DOCK,    WHAT    REPORT 
WOULD  YOU  MAKE  TO  THE  DOCK  MASTER? 

Ans.  Whether  the  vessel  was  straight  on  the  keel;  the  amount 
of  h9g  or  sag,  if  any;  the  vessel's  deadrise;  location  of  suction 
openings  in  the  ship's  bottom;  also  the  repair,  if  any,  contemplated 
to  hull,  so  that  he  may  properly  place  Bilge  Blocks. 

13.  WHAT   IS   MEANT   BY  MEAN   DRAUGHT? 
Ans.     The  mean  of  the  draught  forward  and  aft. 

14.  WHAT  IS  THE  MEAN  DRAUGHT  OF  A  VESSEL,  DRAW- 
ING 16  FEET  FORWARD  AND  20  FEET  AFT? 

Ans.     Eighteen   (18)   feet. 

15.  WHERE  ARE  THE  DRAUGHT  NUMBERS  GENERALLY 
MARKED  ON  A  VESSEL? 

Ans.  Forward  on  the  stem  and  aft  on  the  stern  frame  or  rud- 
der post. 

16.  A   VESSEL    DRAWS    20    FEET    OF   WATER,    AT    WHAT 
POINT  WOULD  THE  WATER-LINE  SHOW  ON  THE  FIGURE? 

Ans.     At  the   bottom. 

17.  HOW  WOULD  YOU  HEAVE  A   STEAM  VESSEL  TO  IN 
A  GALE   OF  WIND   WITH  A  BIG   SEA  RUNNING? 

Ans.  It  would  depend  upon  the  vessel,  her  class  and  type. 
Some  vessels  will  lay  very  comfortably  with  the  wind  and  sea  from 
right  ahead  to  four  points  on  the  bow  and  the  engines  going  just 
strong  enough  to  give  her  barely  steerage  way,  while  others  will, 
if  the  engines  are  stopped,  find  their  own  bearing  and  most  com- 
fortable position  and  heave  themselves  to. 

18.  WHAT  MEANS  WOULD  YOU  USE  TO  STEER  A  STEAM 
VESSEL  IF  THE  RUDDER  WAS  CARRIED  AWAY  OR  BECAME 
USELESS? 

Ans.  Pay  out  a  hawser  or  spar  attached  to  a  hawser,  or  rig  a 
jury  rudder  with  a  spar  on  boom  over  the  stern  with  a  tackle  at 
each  end  and  take  hauling  parts  of  the  tackle  aft  to  winch  or 
capstan. 

19.  ASSUMING    THAT    YOU    ARE    CLOSE    INSHORE    IN    A 
STEAM  VESSEL,  ANCHORS  GONE,   RUDDER  GONE,   NO   TIME 
TO  RIG  A  JURY  RUDDER,  HOW  WOULD  YOU  GET  THE  SHIP 
OFF   SHORE? 

Ans.  If  the  wind  were  blowing  hard  on  shore  I  would  go  astern 
on  my  engines,  as  a  steam  vessel  will  invariably  back  into  the 
wind.  If  the  wind  were  blowing  off  shore,  would  let  the  ship  drift 
until  I  could  rig  auxiliary  gear. 

20.  WHAT      IS      SPONTANEOUS      COMBUSTION     AND     IN 
WHAT  KIND  OF  CARGOES  IS  IT  MOST  LIKELY  TO  OCCUR? 

Ans.  It  is  the  heat  and  fire  caused  by  the  internal  gases  in 
such  cargoes  as  coal,  wool,  rags,  waste,  cotton  and  jute. 

21  IF  A  STEAM  VESSEL'S  MACHINERY  WAS  DISABLED 
HOW 'WOULD  YOU  HEAVE  HER  TO  IN  A  GALE  OF  WIND? 

Ans.  With  a  drag  rigged  to  the  best  advantage  and  having 
the  sails,  if  any,  set;  or  with  canvas  or  tarpaulins  spread  in  the 
rigging  to  assist  in  keeping  the  ship  from  falling  off  broadside  to 
the  sea,  and  by  this  means  prevent  the  wind  having  hold  enough  on 
the  ship  to  make  leeway. 

22.     WHAT  IS  THE  SHEER  STRAKE? 

Ans.  It  is  the  heavy  strake  of  plating  next  to  the  bulwarks. 
or  in  other  words,  the  uppermost  strake  in  the  vessel's  hull. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  265 

23.  WHAT   ARE    THE    GARBOARD    STRAKES? 

Ans.  The  plates  on  both  sides  of  the  keel  or  in  other  words, 
the  lowest  strake  in  a  vessel's  hull. 

24.  WHAT       COMPRISES       A       COMPLETE       TRANSVERSE 
FRAME? 

Ans.  A  frame  bar,  a  reverse  bar,  a  floor  plate,  a  beam  and  n 
pillar  properly  united. 

25.  WHAT  IS   THE   OBJECT  OF  THE   FRAMING? 

Ans.  To  support  the  outside  plating,  and  to  provide  transverse 
and  longitudinal  strength. 

26.  AT     WHAT     DISTANCE     ARE     FRAMES     GENERALLY 
SPACED? 

Ans.     Twenty-four   (24)   to  thirty-six    (36)   inches. 

27.  WHAT  IS  A  WEB  FRAME? 

Ans.  A  wide  plate  attached  to  the  shell  plating  by  a  frame 
angle,  stiffened  on  the  inner  edge  by  a  single  or  double  reverse 
angle  bar. 

28.  WHAT  IS   A   STRINGER  PLATE? 

Ans.  A  broad  thick  plate  fitted  on  each  tier  of  beams,  and 
riveted  to  the  beams  and  shell  plating. 

29.  WHAT  TYPES  OF  KEELS  ARE  GENERALLY  USED  IN 
STEEL  VESSELS? 

Ans.     Bar  keels,  side  bar  keels,  and  flat  plate  keels. 

30.  WHAT  ARE  THE  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  AN  IRON 
OR  STEEL  VESSEL  WHICH  CONTRIBUTE  TO  HER  FORE  AND 
AFT  OR  LONGITUDINAL  STRENGTH? 

Ans.  The  keel,  center  through  plate,  intercostals,  margin 
plates,  shell  plates,  keelsons,  stringers  and  iron  or  steel  decks. 

31.  FOR    WHAT    PURPOSES    ARE    SIDE    STRINGERS    AND 
KEELSONS  USED? 

Ans.  For  the  purpose  of  stiffening  the  frames  and  floor  plates, 
uniting  them  and  distributing  the  local  strains,  and  for  providing 
fore  and  aft  strength. 

32.  WHAT  IS  A  RIDER  PLATE? 

Ans.  A  plate  fitted  on  top  of  the  middle  keelson.  It  is  at- 
tached to  the  keelson  by  means  of  an  angle  bar  on  each  side. 

33.  WHAT    IS    MEANT    BY    THE    TERM    "SCANTLING"? 
Ans.     It   is   a   term   used   to   indicate   the   sizes   of   parts   of   the 

framing  of  a  vessel. 

34.  WHAT   IS    MEANT   BY   LENGTH   BETWEEN    PERPEN- 
DICULARS? 

Ans.  The  length  of  a  vessel  measured  from  the  fore  side  of 
the  stem  to  the  after  side  of  the  stern  post. 

35.  WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  LENGTH  OVER  ALL? 

Ans.  The  length  of  a  vessel  measured  from  the  foremost  side 
of  the  stem  to  the  aftermost  part  of  the  overhang  of  the  stern. 

26.  WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  EXTREME  BREADTH? 

Ans.  The  greatest  breadth  of  a  vessel  measured  outside  of  the 
shell  plating. 

37.  WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  MOULDED  BREADTH? 

Ans.  The  greatest  breadth  of  a  vessel  measured  to  the  out- 
side of  the  frame,  not  including  the  shell  plate. 

38.  WHAT   IS   MEANT   BY   THE   MOULDED   DEPTH? 

Ans.  The  depth  from  the  top  of  the  keel  at  the  middle  of  the 
length  of  the  vessel  to  the  top  of  the  upper  deck  beam  measured 
at  the  side  of  the  vessel. 

39.  WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  DEPTH  OF  HOLD? 

Ans.  The  depth  measured  from  the  ceiling  or  tank  top  to  the 
top  of  the  upper  deck  beam  in  the  middle  length  of  the  vessel. 


266  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


ENGINEERING. 


1.  WHAT  IS  STEAM  AND  HOW  IS  IT  GENERATED? 

Ans.  Steam  is  a  gas  generated  by  the  combination  of  heat  and 
water. 

2.  AT  WHAT   TEMPERATURE  IS  IT  FORMED? 
Ans.     Steam  is  formed  at  212  degrees  F. 

3.  WHAT   IS    THE    HIGHEST    TEMPERATURE    TO    WHICH 
WATER  CAN  BE  HEATED  IN  AN  OPEN  VESSEL? 

Ans.     212  degees  F. 

4.  WHAT  IS  A  VACUUM  AND  OF  WHAT  ADVANTAGE  IS 
IT  TO  A  MARINE  ENGINE? 

Ans.  A  vacuum  is  a  space  void  of  pressure.  An  engine  ex- 
hausting into  a  vacuum  has  part  of  the  atmospheric  pressure  re- 
moved. 

5.  DESCRIBE   THE   DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF  CONDENSERS 
USED  ON  MARINE  ENGINES. 

Ans.  There  are  three  kinds  of  condensers  in  common  use. 
The  surface  condenser  is  a  vessel  filled  with  small  tubes  through 
which  sea  water  is  forced  to  keep  them  cool.  The  exhaust  steam 
striking  the  outside  of  thes«  tubes  is  condensed  to  water,  falls 
to  the  bottom  and  is  removed  by  the  air  pump.  The  jet  condenser 
is  a  vessel  having  an  injection  pipe  connected  with  the  sea,  fitted 
with  a  spray  head  through  which  sea  water  flows.  The  exhaust 
steam  strikes  this  spray  and  is  mixed  with  the  water,  becomes  con- 
densed and  falls  to  the  bottom  and  is  removed  by  the  air  pump. 
This  type  is  very  seldom  used  now  except  on  fresh  water  lakes 
and  rivers.  The  keel  condenser  consists  of  a  pipe  or  series  of  pipes 
attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  boat  with  one  end  connected  to  the 
exhaust  and  the  other  to  the  air  pump.  It  is  kept  cool  by  the  action 
of  the  water  as  the  boat  passes  through  it. 

6.  WHAT  ARE  THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  A  TRIPLE  EXPAN- 
SION AND  A  COMPOUND   OVER  A   SINGLE   ENGINE? 

Ans.  The  advantages  of  a  triple  expansion  or  a  compound 
over  a  single  engine  are  1st,  the  economy  by  expanding  steam 
from  a  high  to  a  low  pressure.  2nd,  a  better  balanced  engine, 
thereby  giving  less  vibration. 

7.  WHAT   IS   THE   CAPACITY  IN   GALLONS   OF  A  ROUND 
TANK  5'  IN  DIAMETER  AND  6'  LONG? 

Ans.     Reduce  measurements  to  inches  and  proceed  as  follows: 

60X60X.7854X72^231:=881.12    gallons 

8.  DESCRIBE  IN  DETAIL  HOW  TO  PUT  THE  CRANK  OF 
AN  ENGINE  ON  THE  DEAD  CENTER? 

Ans.  Place  the  crank  very  near  the  top  center,  mark  the 
guide  at  the  bottom  of  the  slipper,  then  tram  from  some  stationary 
part  of  the  engine  to  the  crank  web.  Next  roll  the  engine  up  over 
the  center  until  the  slipper  comes  to  the  mark  on  the  guide,  then 
with  the  tram  in  the  same  place  on  the  stationary  part  of  the  en- 
gine where  it  was  before,  make  another  mark  on  the  crank  web. 
The  center  between  these  two  marks  will  be  the  top  center  mark. 
Roll  the  engine  to  the  bottom  and  proceed  in  the  same  manner. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  267 

9.  EXPLAIN  IN  DETAIL  HOW   TO    SET   THE   VALVES   OF 
AN   ENGINE. 

Ans.  Place  the  crank  on  the  top  dead  center;  take  off  the 
steam  chest  bonnet;  slack  up  the  eccentric  set-screws  and  roll  the 
eccentric  round  in  the  direction  you  wish  the  engine  to  travel  until 
the  valve  shows  the  proper  lead;  set  up  the  set-screws  and  roll 
engine  to  bottom  center.  If  the  lead  then  is  the  same  or  a  trifle 
more,  the  valve  is  set  correctly. 

10.  EXPLAIN  HOW  TO  LINE  UP  AN  ENGINE. 

Ans.  Disconnect  connecting  rod;  remove  piston  and  rod  from 
cylinder;  place  a  thin  line  down  through  cylinder  to  bottom  of 
crank-pit,  calipering  from  counter  bore  at  the  sides  of  the  top,  and 
of  the  stuffing  box  at  the  bottom,  to  the  line,  to  be  sure  it  is  in 
the  exact  center.  Then  roll  the  crank  up  until  the  crank-pin  al- 
most couches  the  line;  measure  from  line  to  crank  web;  roll  the 
crank  to  the  bottom  taking  care  that  it  does  not  move  either  for- 
ward or  aft,  and  again  measure  from  line  to  web.  If  both  measure- 
ments (top  and  bottom)  are  the  same,  the  crank  is  "in  line." 

11.  WITH    A     TRIPLE     EXPANSION     ENGINE     YOU     FIND 
THE  H.   P.   AND  I.   P.   DOING  MORE  WORK   THAN   THE   L.    P., 
HOW  DO  YOU  EQUALIZE  THE  WORK? 

Ans.     Gag  up  the  H.  P.  and  L.  P. 

12.  WHAT  IS  AN  INDICATOR  AND  WHAT  ARE  ITS  USES? 
Ans.     An  indicator  is  an   instrument   for   taking  a  diagram   or 

chart  of  the  workings  of  an  engine. 

13.     HOW    DO    YOU    FIND    THE    HORSE    POWER    OF    AN 
ENGINE    FROM    AN    INDICATOR    DIAGRAM? 

Ans.  Find  the  M.  E.  P.  by  dividing  the  card  into  ten  parts. 
Measure  the  total  length  of  these  parts  in  inches,  multiply"  by  the 
scale  of  the  spring  and  divide  by  ten.  Multiply  the  area  of  the 
piston  in  inches  by  the  M.  E.  P.  and  multiply  this  product  by  the 
speed  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute  and  divide  by  33000  =  H.  P. 

14.  DETERMINE    THE    HORSE    POWER    OF     AN     ENGINE 
WITH  A   CYLINDER   30"   IN   DIAMETER,    STROKE    OF   PISTON 
3',    REVOLUTIONS    100    PER    MINUTE,    TAKING    THE    M.    E.    P. 
of  54.3. 

Ans. 

30X30X.7854X54.3X600 

=697.86  H.  P. 

33000 

15.  WHAT  IS  LAP  AND  WHAT  IS  LEAD,  AND  WHAT  ARE 
THEIR   USES? 

Ans.  Lap  is  the  amount  the  valve  overlaps  the  ports  when 
it  is  in  the  center  of  its  travel.  Lap  operates  to  close  the  port  be- 
fore the  engine  has  finished  its  stroke  so  that  the  expansion  of  the 
steam  may  carry  the  piston  the  remainder  of  its  stroke.  Lead  is  the 
amount  the  port  is  open  for  the  admission  of  steam  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  stroke. 

16.  WHAT   IS   THE    EFFECT   OF   EXHAUST    LAP? 

Ans.  The  effect  of  exhaust  lap  is  to  close  the  exhaust  port 
shortly  before  the  completion  of  the  stroke,  thereby  causing  a  com- 
pression of  the  steam  remaining  in  the  cylinder  for  the  piston  to 
cushion  against. 

17.  IF    YOU    SHOULD    BREAK    YOUR    I.    P.    VALVE    STEM, 
HOW  WOULD  'YOU   ARRANGE    TO    RUN? 

Ans.  Take  out  the  I.  P.  valve  and  run  with  H.  P.  and  L.  P. 
engine. 


268 THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL. 

18.  WITH  A   PISTON   VALVE    TAKING    STEAM   THROUGH 
THE   MIDDLE   OR  INSIDE,    DOES   THE   ECCENTRIC   LEAD   OR 
FOLLOW    THE    CRANK? 

Ans.  It  follows  the  crank  if  the  eccentric  rods  are  connected 
direct. 

19.  WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  PfTCH,  AND  SLIP  OF  A  SCREW 
PROPELLER? 

Ans.  The  pitch  of  a  screw  is  the  amount  it  would  advance  in 
one  revolution  if  revolving  in  a  solid  substance.  The  slip  of  a 
screw  propeller  is  the  difference  between  the  speed  of  the  ship 
and  the  speed  of  the  propeller  determined  by  the  pitch. 

20.  HOW  DO  YOU  DETERMINE  THE  PITCH  OF  A  SCREW 
PROPELLER? 

Ans.  Measure  from  the  leading  edge  of  the  propeller  blade 
to  the  stern  post,  then  measure  from  the  following  edge  of  the 
blade  to  the  stern  post.  The  difference  between  these  two  meas- 
urements will  be  a  piece  of  the  pitch,  also  it  will  be  the  base  of  a 
triangle  of  which  the  width  of  the  blade  will  be  the  hypothenuse. 
The  square  root  of  the  difference  of  the  squares  of  these  two  sides 
will  be  a  part  of  the  circumference,  then  the  whole  circumference 
divided  by  this  part  of  the  circumference,  and  the  quotient  multi- 
plied by  the  part  of  the  pitch  already  found  will  give  the  whole 
pitch. 

21.  ON    WRITING    UP     YOUR    LOG     YOU     FIND     ENGINE 
REGISTER  SHOWS  144,000  REVOLUTIONS  FOR  THE  24  HOURS 
WITH  THE  PITCH  OF  YOUR  PROPELLER  15.2',  AND  20%   SLIP, 
HOW    FAR    WOULD    THE    SHIP    HAVE    GONE?     ALLOW    6080' 
PER  NAUTICAL   MILE. 

Ans. 

144000X15.2X.80 

=288  knots. 

6080 

22.  WITH   THE   ENGINE   RACING    BADLY    IN    A     HEAVY 
SEA  WAY,  WHAT  WOULD  YOU  DO? 

Ans.  If  there  were  no  governor  on  the  engine  I  would  close 
throttle  each  time  the  ship's  stern  rose. 

23.  EXPLAIN    HOW    YOU     WOULD     REPAIR     A     BROKEN 
SHAFT  IN  ORDER  TO  GET   THE  SHIP  INTO   PORT. 

Ans.  It  depends  upon  the  shape  of  the  break.  If  broken  off 
square  would  cut  a  slot  on  both  sides  of  break  on  opposite  sides  of 
shaft,  place  a  clamp  on  shaft  each  side  of  break,  and  with  bolts  draw 
broken  ends  firmly  together,  then  fit  a  key  in  the  slot,  cover  with 
clamp  and  proceed  slowly. 

24.  WITH    THE    SAME    RATIO    OF   EXPANSION   AND    THE 
SAME  INITIAL  PRESSURE,  WHICH  IS  THE  MORE  EFFICIENT, 
A  COMPOUND   OR    SINGLE   ENGINE,    AND   WHY? 

Ans.  The  compound  would  be  the  more  efficient,  for  the  rea- 
son that  everything  else  being  equal,  the  steam  in  expanding  in 
the  two  stages  in  the  compound  has  been  found  to  produce  less 
condensation  than  the  one  stage  expansion,  as  in  the  simple  engine. 

25.  IF  YOU   SHOULD  HAVE   THE-L.    P.    CYLINDER  HEAD 
OF    A    TRIPLE    EXPANSION    ENGINE    KNOCKED    OUT,    HOW 
WOULD   YOU   ARRANGE    TO    RUN? 

Ans.  If  the  piston  rings  are  tight  it  will  only  be  necessary  to 
plug  the  top  steam  port  with  pine.  Should  the  engine  run  too  un- 
evenly, take  out  the  valve  and  plug  both  top  and  bottom  steam 
ports. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL. 269 

26.  HOW  DO  YOU  SHORTEN   THE   CUT-OFF  OR  FOLLOW 
WITH   A    SLIDE,    OR   PISTON    VALVE    ENGINE? 

Ans.  If  there  is  no  independent  cut-off  provided,  this  can  be 
done  by  "linking  up." 

27.  WHAT  IS  THE  AVERAGE  AMOUNT  OF  COAL,  BURNED 
PER  SQUARE  FOOT  OF  GRATE  SURFACE  PER  HOUR  UNDER 
NATURAL  DRAFT? 

Ans.     From   18  to  20  Ibs. 

28.  HOW  MUCH  WATER  IS  A  POUND  OF  COAL  SUPPOSED 
TO   EVAPORATE? 

Ans.     From  7  to  10  Ibs. 

29.  WHAT    IS    THE    TEMPERATURE    OF     STEAM     AT     100 
LBS.    PRESSURE? 

Ans.     About   337   degrees   F. 

30.  WHY  DO  WE  GET  A  BETTER  DRAFT  WITH  A  DOUBLE 
STACK  THAN  WE  DO  WITH  A   SINGLE   ONE   OF   THE    SAME 
DIMENSIONS? 

Ans.  The  air  space  between  the  casing  and  the  stack  prevents 
radiation,  thereby  keeping  the  gases  in  the  stack  hotter  than  they 
would  be  without  the  casing. 

31.  ABOUT   WHAT   WOULD    BE    THE    TEMPERATURE    AT 
THE    BASE   OF    THE    STACK    FOR   AN    EFFICIENT    NATURAL 
DRAFT? 

Ans.     About   600   degrees. 

32.  HOW  MANY  POUNDS  OF  AIR  ARE  REQUIRED  TO 
BURN  A  POUND  OF  COAL? 

Ans.     20  Ibs.  for  forced  draft;  24  Ibs  for  natural  draft. 

33.  EXPLAIN    THE    ELLIS    &    EAVES     INDUCED    DRAFT 
SYSTEM. 

Ans.  The  Ellis  &  Eaves  induced  draft  system  has  the  fan 
placed  at  the  base  of  the  stack  and  draws  the  burned  gases  from 
the  fires,  instead  of  forcing  the  air  through  grates  as  in  other  sys- 
tems. The  air  which  is  supplied  to  the  furnace  is  drawn  down 
through  a  system  of  tubes  placed  in  the  uptake,  which  heats  it  be- 
fore it  is  admitted  to  the  fire. 

34.  WHAT    TYPE    OF    BOILER    DO    YOU    CONSIDER    THE 
BEST  FOR  MARINE  PURPOSES,  AND  WHY? 

Ans.  The  "SCOTCH"  bpiler,  being  of  circular  shape  and  hav- 
ing very  few  fiat  surfaces,  is  much  stronger  than  any  other  type 
of  shell  boiler.  It  is  easy  of  access  for  cleaning  purposes,  a  good 
steam  generator,  and  containing  a  large  amount  of  water  it  car- 
ries both  steam  and  water  level  very  steadily. 

35.  WHAT  IS  THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  A  FIRE-TUBE 
AND   A  WATER-TUBE   BOILER? 

Ans.  In  a  fire-tube  boiler  the  water  surrounds  and,  the  hot 
gases  pass  through  the  tube,  while  in  a  water-tube  boiler  the  water 
is  contained  in  and  the  hot  gases  pass  around  the  tubes. 

36.  WITH     STAYS     PLACED     6"     CENTER     TO     CENTER, 
WHAT  SIZE  OF  STAYS  WOULD  BE  REQUIRED  FOR  A  STEAM 
PRESSURE  OF  100   LBS.   PER   SQUARE  INCH,   ALLOWING  6000 
LBS.    STRAIN   PER   SQUARE   INCH   OF   CROSS    SECTION? 

Ans. 

6X6X100=3600 

=.6 

6000 
.6-4-. 7854=. 763941,  the  sq.  root  of  which  is  .875  =  %"  dia.  of  stay. 

37.  WHAT       ARE       THE       ADVANTAGES       AND       DISAD- 
VANTAGES   OF    THE    WATER-TUBE    TYPE    OF    BOILER    FOR 
MARINE  USES? 


270  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 

Ans.  The  advantages  are  quick  steaming  qualities,  light 
weight  and  compactness.  The  disadvantages  are  short  life,  in- 
accessibility for  cleaning  and  repairs,  and  owing  to  the  small 
amount  of  water  contained,  the  feed  water  supply  requires  greater 
care. 

38.  WHICH  IS  THE  STRONGER,  A  DOUBLE  BUTT  STRAP 
JOINT  OR  A  LAP  JOINT? 

Ans.  The  butt  strap  joint  is  the  stronger  for  the  reason  that 
the  straps  compensate  for  the  metal  cut  out  in  drilling  the  rivet 
holes,  also  as  the  edge  of  the  plates  are  butted,  the  shell  can  be 
formed  to  a  true  circle  which  is  not  possible  in  a  lap  joint. 

39.  WHAT  CAUSES  PITTING  IN  A"  MARINE  BOILER  AND 
WHAT  WOULD  YOU  DO  TO  PREVENT  IT? 

Ans.  Pitting  and  grooving  are  principally  caused  by  acids  in 
the  feed  water,  and  by  galvanic  action. 

Hang  plenty  of  zinc  slabs  in  the  steam  and  water  spaces,  also 
use  sal-soda.  In  using  soda  care  should  be  taken  not  to  put  in  too 
much  as  it  is  liable  to  make  the  boiler  prime. 

40.  WHAT  CAUSES  FOAMING  AND  PRIMING  IN  A  BOILER, 
AND  WHAT   WOULD   YOU   DO   TO    STOP   IT? 

Ans.  Foaming  is  caused  by  dirty  water  changing  from  fresh 
to  salt,-  also  caused  sometimes  by  having  the  water-line  too 
high  thereby  constricting  the  separating  spaces.  In  a  bad  case  I 
would  haul  the  damper,  cover  the  fires  with  fresh  coal  and  slow 
the  engine,  pump  and  blow  until  she  settled  down,  then  go  ahead 

?  41.  WHAT  CAUSES  CRACKS,  BULGES  AND  BLISTERS, 
AND  HOW  WOULD  YOU  REPAIR  EACH? 

Ans.  Cracks  are  caused  by  the  plates  becoming  crystallized, 
also  by  unequal  expansion  and  contraction.  If  small  they  may  be 
repaired  by  drilling  a  hole  at  each  end,  driving  a  rivet  in  each  hole 
and  calking  the  crack.  If  large  they  should  be  cut  out  and  patched. 
Bulges  are  usually  caused  by  the  plates  being  overheated  and  if 
not  too  bad  may  be  stayed  to  prevent  their  extending.  Blisters 
usually  occur  in  laminated  places  and  are  now  very  seldom  seen. 
If  the  blister  is  not  too  thick  or  large  it  may  be  trimmed  out  and 
let  go,  but  if  large  it  should  be  cut  out  and  patched. 

42.  WHAT  IS  A  FUSIBLE  PLUG,  AND  WHERE  WOULD  IT 
BE  PLACED  IN  A  "SCOTCH"  BOILER? 

Ans.  A  fusible  plug  is  a  brass  shell  filled  with  "BANCA"  tin 
and  should  be  placed  in  the  crown  of  the  combustion  chamber  of  a 
"SCOTCH"  boiler. 

43  WHAT  WOULD  YOU  PARTICULARLY  LOOK  AFTER 
WHEN  EXAMINING  THE  INTERIOR  OF  A  BOILER? 

Ans.  Examine  all  stays  to  see  if  any  are  broken  or  slack,  also 
all  the  fire  surfaces  for  grease,  scale  or  pitting.  See  that  surface 
and  bottom  blow  cocks,  and  that  gauge  and  water  glass  cocks  are 
clean  and  in  working  order. 

44.  HOW  THICK  WOULD  THE  SHELL  HAVE  TO  BE  IN  A 
BOILER  10'   IN  DIAMETER,    LONGITUDINAL  JOINTS   DOUBLE 
RIVETED    T     S.   60,000   POUNDS,   TO   BE  ALLOWED  TO   CARRY 
A    STEAM    PRESSURE    OF    100    POUNDS    PER    INCH    BY    THE 
RULES  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  SUPERVISING  INSPECTORS? 

Ans.     1004-1.20  =  83   1/3X60=5000-^10000  =  .  5" 

45.  HOW   DO    YOU    TEST   BOILER   WATER    FOR   ACIDITY 
AND  WHAT  WOULD  YOU  USE  IN  THE  BOILER  TO  CORRECT 
IT? 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  271 

Ans.  Use  blue  litmus  paper  which  is  turned  red  by  acid,  or  a 
few  drops  of  Methyl  of  orange  which  is  turned  pink  by  the  acid 
and  yellow  by  an  alkali.  Use  sal-soda  to  correct  the  acidity  of  the 
water. 

46.  WHAT     INSTRUMENTS     ARE     USED     TO     FIND     THE 
DENSITY   OF   BOILER  WATER? 

Ans.     The   salinometer   and   thermometer. 

47.  HAVING      THE      PROPER      INSTRUMENTS,      EXPLAIN 
HOW  TO  FIND  THE   DENSITY  OF  WATER. 

Ans.  Draw  a  sample  of  water  from  the  boiler,  place  the  ther- 
mometer in  it  and  when  the  temperature  is  same  as  one  of  the 
scales  on  the  salinometer,  place  it  in  water.  The  floating  point 
on  that  scale  will  be  the  density. 

48.  WHAT   IS   THE   DENSITY   OF   COMMON    SEA   WATER? 
Ans.     Sea  water  is  1/32  part  solid  matter  by  weight. 

49.  HOW    DENSE    DO    YOU    CONSIDER    IT    SAFE    TO    RUN 
THE   WATER  IN   A   BOILER? 

Ans.     Not  more   than   3/32. 

50.  IF  THE  WATER  BECAME  TOO  DENSE  FOR  SAFETY, 
WHAT  WOULD  YOU  DO? 

Ans.     Pump  and  blow  until  the  water  is  safe  to  use. 

51.  EXPLAIN  IN  DETAIL  HOW  YOU  WOULD  CONSTRUCT 
A  SALINOMETER  AT  SEA  IF  YOURS  SHOULD  BREAK. 

Ans.  Take  a  thin  glass  tube,  plug  and  weight  one  end  so  it 
will  stand  upright  in  the  water.  Heat  some  fresh  water  to  about 
200  degrees  and  place  the  glass  in  it.  Mark  the  floating  point  as 
zero.  Heat  some  sea  water  to  about  200  degrees  and  place  the 
glass  in  this.  Mark  the  floating  point  1/32,  then  take  two  quarts 
of  sea  water  and  boil  it  down  to  one.  Let  it  cool  to  200  degrees 
and  place  the  glass  in  it,  marking  the  floating  point  2/32  and  so  on 
till  you  get  all  the  graduations  you  want. 

52.  IF  YOU  WERE   ON  A   LEE    SHORE   AND   LOST    SIGHT 
OF  THE  WATER  IN  YOUR  BOILER,  WHAT  WOULD  YOU  DO? 

Ans.     Notify  the  captain  and  haul  the  fires. 

53.  WHAT    WOULD    BE    THE    STEAMING    RADIUS    OF    A 
SHIP  BURNING  20  TONS  OF  COAL  PER  DAY,  WITH  A  BUNKER 
45'  WIDE  AT  THE  TOP,  23'  WIDE  AT  THE  BOTTOM,  50'  LONG, 
25'  DEEP,  SHIP  MAKING  15  KNOTS?     ALLOW  40  CUBIC  FEET 
PER  TON. 

Ans.     (45  +  23-^-2)    50X25^40=1062.5   tons   coal. 
1062.54-20X360=19125   knots. 

54.  STATE    BRIEFLY    HOW   YOU   WOULD    PREPARE    FOR 
A  VOYAGE  WITH  A  NEW  SHIP. 

Ans.  Have  plenty  coal,  oils,  packing,  extra  feed  water,  spare 
parts  usually  carried,  and  tools  on  board.  Start  fires  the  night 
before  sailing,  get  steam  and  have  a  thorough  dock  trial  to  de- 
termine that  all  joints  are  tight  and  all  journals  properly  adjusted. 

55.  WHAT  REPORTS  ARE  REQUIRED  OF  ENGINEERS  BY 
THE   LOCAL  INSPECTORS? 

Ans.  All  accidents,  defects  that  have  appeared  in  boiler  and 
machinery,  also  all  repairs  made. 


MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


DESCRIPTION,  CARE  AND  USE 

OF 

NAUTICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 


In  order  to  voyage  safely  from  place  to  place  and  to  carry  the 
wares  of  commerce  from  one  country  to  another,  it  is  necessary  to 
possess  and  make  intelligent  ;use  of  many  appliances  which  come 
under  the  head  of  Nautical  Instruments. 

The  student  of  navigation,  whether  he  be  the  hardy  mariner  or 
the  scientist,  is  continually  striving  to  •  improve  upon  the  instru- 
ments in  use  and  in  many  cases  has  succeeded  in  'adding  to  the 
sum  total  of  human  knowledge;  thereby  lessening  the  risk  or  dan- 
ger that  must  ever  be  present  while  wind  and  weather  are  beyond 
human  control. 

'"Instruments  of  precision"  is  a  term  that  may  well  be  applied 
to  those  used  in  navigation,  and  having  fixed  this  term  in  mind 
it  is  easy  to  realize  that  your  own  safety  requires  the  performance 
of  two  duties,  first  to  -obtain  the  very  best  instruments  possible, 
and  second  to  guard  and  care  for  them  as  you  would  for  your  most 
cherished  possessions. 

All  nautical  instruments  are  of  a1  delicate  nature  and  .require 
careful  handling  and  good  care  when  in  use  or' when  stowed  away. 
Too  -much  attention  cannot  be  given  them  as  all  are  liable  to  be 
put  out  of  adjustment  arid  may  easily  be  spoiled  by  laying  them 
about  carelessly  or  leaving  them  exposed  to  the  sun  or  weather. 

Opportunities  are  given  b"y  the  Government  and  under  private 
control,  m  the  many  schools  now  being  conducted,  for  young  men 
to  study  navigation  and  become  proficient  in  this  science.  No 
attempt  is  made  in. this  manual  to  touch  on  the  subject,  but  it 
may  not  be  amiss  in  pur  closing  pages  to  give  a  short  description 
of,  and  say  a  word  about,  how  best  to  care  for  your  instruments. 


THE    COMPASS. 

The  compass 'is  mounted  in  a  stand  which  is  usually  made  of 
hard  wood  firmly  secured  to  the  deck,  and  on  the  top  of  this 
stand  is  fitted  a  brass  hood  having  a  sliding  cover,  thus  inclosing 
the  compass.  The  hood  is  usually  fitted  at  the  side  -ith  either 
oil  or  electric  lamps  to  illuminate  the  compass  card;  but  in  some 
cases  the  compass  has  a  glass  bottom  with  a  light  below. 

This  outfit  is  called  the  Binnacle  arid  projecting  from  the 
sides,  near  the  top,  are  brackets  ori  which  are  mounted  spheres 
of  soft  iron  known  as  "Quadrantal  Correctors".  A  brass  case 
containing  the  "Flinders"  bar  which  is  made  of  soft  iron  is  also 
fastened  to  the  outside  of  the  binnacle.  Inside  the  stand  will  be 
found  racks  to  hold  the  magnets. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  273 

Compasses  used  on  merchant  vessels  are  of  two  types,  the 
"Dry  Card"  and  the  "Liquid".  The  card  of  the  dry  compass,  which 
is  used  as  a  standard,  is  very  light,  and  suspended  from  it  by  silk 
threads  are  very  small  needle  magnets.  The  card  is  marked  in 
points,  halves  and  quarters,  and  on  the  outside  of  the  card  will 
oe  found  a  graduated  scale  in  degrees,  reading  either  clockwise 
from  0  to  360  or  in  four  quadrants,  each  of  90  degrees.  The  dry 
card  or  standard  compass  is  a  compass  by  which  the  ship  should 
be  navigated.  Prom  it  the  course  to  be  steered  by  the  steering 
compass  should  be  set,  and  by  it  all  bearings  for  ascertaining  the 
position  of  the  ship  by  landmarks  or  celestial  bodies  should  be 
taken.  The  deviation  of  the  compass  is  determined  with  the  aid 
of  these  bearings. 

The  liquid  or  "steering  compass"  of  American  manufacture 
has  been  brought  to  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection,  and  for  its 
particular  purposes  has  many  advantages.  By  floating  in  liquid 
the  weight  of  the  card  is  taken  off  the  point,  and  thereby  becomes 
steadier  in  a  seaway  and  comes  to  rest  quickly  after .  the  course 
is  changed. 

This  compass  is  also  mounted  in  a  Binnacle,  and  the  card 
is  graduated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  card  of  the  standard 
compass. 

In  many  cases  on  account  of  the  presence  of  masses  of  vertical 
iron  in  close  proximity  to  the  steering  compass,  it  is  not  advisable 
to  adjust  the  steering  compass  too  exactly.  To  do  so  would  re- 
sult in  an  over  adjustment  which  would  cause  the  magnetic  needle 
to  lose  its  directive  force  and  tend  to  sluggishness. 

It  is  very  important  to  take  frequent  observations  by  Azimuth 
bearing  of  the  sun  to  determine  the  error  of  the  standard  com- 
pass. This  is  especially  necessary  on  new.  vessels  when  the  devia- 
tion is  changing  as  well  as  on  vessels  that  change  their  latitudes 
considerably. 

The  increased  use  of  iron  in  the  construction  of  ships  has 
added  to  the  difficulty  of  fixing  on  a  suitable  location  for  the  stand- 
ard compass.  When  designing  the  vessel  a  position  should  be  se- 
lected near  the  bridge,  and  the  work  of  construction .,  should  be 
planned  with  a  view  to  keeping  iron  work  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  compass. 

The  Bridge  House  on  which  the  compass  is  to  be  placed  should 
be  of  wood,  and  the  compass  should  be  as  far  as  possible  from 
bulkheads,  steel  masts,  and  kingposts.  No  vertical  iron  stanchions 
pr  other  iron  frames  or  rods  should  be  within  10  feet,  and  nidvable 
iron  cowls  of  ventilators  should  not  be  nearer  than '15  feet; 

When  electric  lights  are  used,  the  double  wiring  system  should 
be  adopted,  and  the  dynamo  or  other  electric  motors  should  be  not 
less  than  50  feet  from  the  compass. 

It  is  important  after  launching  and  while  fitting  out  a  new 
ship  to  make  the  vessel  fast  with  her  head  pointing  in  the  op- 
posite direction  to  her  position  while  under  construction.  By  so 
doing  the  hull  will  lose  much  of  the  sub-permanent  magnetism  ac- 
quired while  building. 


274        THE  MERCHANT  MARINE  MANUAL 
THE  COMPASS  READER. 

The  Compass  Reader  is  a  magnifying  glass  mounted  on  a 
tripod  that  can  be  extended  and  tightly  clamped  after  fitting  to 
the  glass  top  of  the  compass.  It  is  used  to  magnify  the  degrees 
of  points  of  the  card  in  order  that  they  may  be  more  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  Wheelsman. 

THE  CHRONOMETER. 

The  Chronometer  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  timekeepers  made. 
.  It  is  used  on  board  ships  to  indicate  Greenwich  Meridian  time, 
on  which  all  ship's  time  is  based,  and  is  usually  made  to  run  for 
56  hours  with  one  winding,  but  keeps  better  time  when  wound 
regularly  every  24  hours.  The  movement  is  inclosed  in  a  brass 
bowl  which  is  hung  in  gimbals  to  keep  it  level  when  the  ship  rolls 
or  pitches.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  wooden  box  which  is  placed  in  a 
wooden  carrying  case,  padded  to  keep  it  from  jarring  and  also  to 
protect  it  against  draughts  as  a  change  of  temperature  affects  the 
rate  of  the  instrument. 

The  value  of  a  chronometer  is  determined  by  the  regularity 
with  which  the  rate  is  maintained;  or  in  other  words,  by  the 
length  of  time  during  which  the  daily  gain  or  loss  in  time,  how- 
ever slight,  continues  to  be  equal  to  the  gain  or  loss  of  the  day 
previous. 

When  going  to  sea,  a  rate  is  given  of  the  daily  gain  or  loss  in 
time  made  by  the  chronometer.  The  amount  of  this  is  daily  added 
or  subtracted  as  the  case  may  be  to  the  time  indicated  by  the 
chronometer.  The  second  hand  moves  regularly  once  every  half 
second,  which  is  a  different  movement  from  your  watch. 

To  wind,  gently  turn  the  chronometer  over  in  the  gimbals 
with  your  left  hand  until  it  is  face  downward,  and  with  the  right 
hand  insert  the  key,  winding  seven  or  eight  half  turns,  always  left 
handed.  Be  sure  you  wind  up  to  the  stop  which  is  indicated,  when 
sufficiently  wound,  by  a  small  hand  on  the  dial. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  take  the  chronometer  away  from 
the  ship,  you  will  find  a  lock  or  stay  inside  the  box  which  fits  the 
gimbal  ring  and  bowl,  and  this  should  be  clamped  and  made  fast  by 
the  screw.  If  this  precaution  is  not  taken,  the  chronometer  is 
liable  to  swing  and  turn  upside  down.  When  carrying  it  be  very 
careful  to  use  the  outside  case  and  strap,  so  that  it  can  be  carried 
without  swinging  or  jerking.  Never  put  it  on  the  floor  nor  on  a 
seat  of  any  conveyance,  but  always  carry  it  in  your  hands,  hold- 
ing it  by  the  strap. 

SEXTANTS, 

Sextants,  Octants  and  Quadrants  are  quite  similar  in  prin- 
ciple and  construction  and  we  will  therefore  class  them  all  under 
the  head  of  Sextants. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  275 

The  Sextant  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  angles,  either 
vertical,  horizontal  or  oblique.  The  frame  is  generally  made  of 
bronze  or  similar  metal  and  upon  it  are  mounted  the  Horizon  Shade 
Glasses,  the  Horizon  Glass,  the  Index  Shade  Glasses  and  the  Tele- 
scope Ring.  The  arc  is  inlaid  and  engraved  in  degrees  and  min- 
utes. The  index  arm  which  works  on  a  pivot  and  is  accurately 
centered,  carries  the  index  glass,  a  microscope  for  reading  the  arc 
and  vernier,  and  the  vernier.  The  vernier  is  engraved  and  divided 
into  minutes  and  seconds. 

The  Sextant  should  be  handled  as  carefully  as  a  watch.  It 
should  fit  snugly  in  its  box,  so  that  when  being  carried  in  any 
position  it  will  not  move  around  or  rattle.  When  removed  from 
the  box,  it  should  never  be  placed  out  of  arms  reach  for  if  allowed 
to  fall  to  the  deck  it  will  likely  be  damaged  beyond  repair.  If 
the  arm  or  limb  is  bent  slightly  the  index  error  will  be  different 
for  every  position  of  the  arm,  and  errors  in  the  observed  altitude 
will  result.  When  setting  it  down  it  should  strike  very  lightly  on 
all  three  legs  at  once.  If,  when  setting  it  down,  the  centre  leg 
is  allowed  to  strike  first  it  may  bend  the  centre  and  an  error  sim- 
ilar to  that  above  mentioned  will  result. 

The  mirrors  should  be  re-silvered  as  soon  as  they  show  signs 
of  wear.  If  they  are  allowed  to  remain  with  broken  or  scarred 
silver  for  any  length  of  time,  the  scars  will  remain  on  the  glass 
even  after  the  coating  has  been  removed  in  the  process  of  re- 
silvering.  These  scars  may  be  polished  off  by  an  experienced  lense 
grinder,  but  the  work  requires  special  machinery  such  as  very 
few  nautical  dealers  or  lens  grinders  possess.  If  the  scars  are  simply 
buffed  off,  even  while  the  mirror  may  be  perfectly  clean,  the  paral- 
lelism of  the  surfaces  will  be  destroyed  and  a.  distorted  image  will 
result.  This  will  render  observations  unreliable  and  such  mirrors 
should  be  replaced  by  new  ones. 

After  a  mirror  has  been  in  use  for  a  long  time  it  generally 
becomes  "foggy".  While  it  may  be  all  right  for  solar  observations 
it  will  be  unsatisfactory  for  star  work,  and  if  extremely  "foggy" 
may  render  even  such  work  impossible.  New  mirrors  can  be 
fitted  and  this  trouble  overcome. 

More  important  even  than  the  care  of  the  mirrors  is  the  care 
of  the  arc  and  vernier.  These  are  the  vital  parts  of  the  instrument 
and  the  correctness  of  their  cutting  is  a  measure  of  the  quality  of 
the  instrument  as  the  care  that  is  taken  of  them  determines  its 
value.  They  should  never  be  cleaned  with  emery  cloth,  sandpaper 
or  any  kind  of  polish  as  such  practice  will  eventually  wear  away 
the  fine  graduations  and  render  the  instrument  useless.  The  grad- 
uations can  be  re-cut,  but  the  process  is  expensive  and  may  be 
avoided  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  care.  If  the  arc  and  vernier 
need  cleaning,  first  carefully  remove  any  dust  and  then  rub  them 
over  lightly  with  a  small  piece  of  chamois  moistened  with  ammonia 
to  remove  any  discoloration  or  grease.  After  this  is  done,  dry  them 
off  with  another  piece  of  chamois  and  apply  a  little  thin  oil.  By 
doing  so  you  will  prevent  the  formation  of  verdigris  and  oxide 
after  the  instrument  has  been  exposed  to  moisture. 

Never  have  your  instrument  re-cut  by  an  engraver  because  if 
this  is  done  the  vernier  may  no  longer  properly  coincide  with  the 
arc  and  the  instrument  will  be  ruined. 


276  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 

THE   PELORUS. 

The  Pelorus  is  a  dumb  card,  that  is  to  say  a  non-magnetic 
compass  card.  It  is  made  of  brass  and  is  marked  in  points  and 
degrees  as  are  most  compass  cards.  It  is  hung  in  gimbals  with  a 
balancing  weight  underneath  it  to  keep  it  level  regardless  of  the 
motion  of  the  ship.  The  card  revolves  on  an  upright  pivot  which 
also  serves  to  carry  the  sight  vanes  which  are  made  fast  in  posi- 
tion, by  a  large  milled  head  screw. 

One  of  the  uprights  of  the  sight  vane  is  fitted  with  a  thread 
and  has  a  hinged  mirror  at  its  base.  Another  has  a  colored  eye 
shade  which  slides  up  and  down  the  bar  as  required.  The  fore 
and  aft  line  on  the  inner  ring  represents  the  ship's  head,  and  this 
inner  ring  may  also  be  clamped  tightly  in  position  by  the  use  of 
another  milled  head  screw  for  whatever  course  you  may  desire. 

The  Pelorus  is  inclosed  in  a  box  or  can  be  mounted  on  a  stand 
and  is  generally  used  for  ascertaining  the  deviation  of  the  com- 
pass, but  is  also  useful  for  many  other  purposes. 

AZIMUTH    MIRROR. 

The  Azimuth  Mirror  is  used  for  taking  bearings  of  celestial  or 
terrestrial  bodies.  It  is  made  to  fit  on  the  glass  of  the  standard 
compass,  and  is  used  always  in  conjunction  with  it.  The  instru- 
ment consists  of  a  bar  to  which  is  fastened  a  level,  a  shadow  pin, 
shade  glasses,  a  lense,  a  totally  reflecting  prism  and  a  tube.  When 
taking  a  bearing  you  turn  the  instrument  until  the  mirror  and 
lense  are  exactly  opposite  to  the  object  and  look  through  the 
lense  at  the  compass  card  noting  the  degree  shown:  Then  turn 
the  prism  around  on  its  horizontal  axis  until  the  image  of  the  ob- 
ject falls  on  the  card:  Then  read  on  the  card  the  bearing  of  the 
object. 

The  American  type  of  instrument  has  a  bar  with  two  sets  of 
prisms,  vanes  and  mirrors,  and  centers  in  a  hole  in  the  glass  top 
of  the  standard  compass.  The  first  set  is  used  for  taking  obser- 
vations of  the  sun,  and  has  a  curved  mirror,  on  a  hinge,  facing  a. 
prism  which  is  inclosed  in  a  brass  case  having  a  narrow  slit  facing 
the  mirror.  The  sun's  rays,  reflected  by  the  mirror  on  the  slit  and 
through  the  prism,  appear  as  a  narrow  streak  of  light  on  the 
compass  card.  The  bearing  of  the  sun  is  determined  by  the  point 
at  which  the  line  of  light  crosses  the  compass  card.  The  second 
set  which  is  used  to  obtain  direct  bearings  of  distant  objects,  is 
equipped  with  a  plain  black  mirror,  sight  vanes  and  a  prism.  By 
sighting  with  the  vanes,  directly  upon  the  object,  the  image  will 
be  reflected  by  the  mirror,  directly  to  the  eye,  and  the  vane  thread 
will  also  be  reflected  to  the  eye  by  the  prism,  thus  giving  you  the 
bearing. 

SHADOW    PIN. 

The  Shadow  Pin  is  a  brass  pin  about  5  inches  long  mounted 
on  a  base  having  a  small  pivot  under  it.  It  is  fitted  to  a  hole 
which  is  drilled  in  the  centre  of  the  glass  top  of  the  standard  com- 
pass. The  compass  must  be  level  when  this  pin  is  being  used. 
The  shadow  pin  is  used  for  taking  an  azimuth  with  the  aid  of  the 
shadow  cast  by  the  sun. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  277 

THE    BAROMETER. 

The  Barometer  is  used  as  a  weather  indicator  and  operates 
by  measuring  the  atmospheric  pressure.  The  type  used  in  the  Mer- 
chant Service  is  known  as  the  Aneroid. 

The  Aneroid  barometer  foretells  the  coming  change  in  the 
weather  and  not  the  actual  condition  at  the  time  noted.  The  in- 
dications given  should  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  ther- 
mometer reading  as  well  as  the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind 
and  the  appearance  of  the  clouds. 

The  working  parts,  which  are  of  metal,  consist  of  a  circular 
vacuum  chamber,  a  series  of  levers  and  a  chain  and  spring.  The 
chamber  expands  or  contracts  as  a  result  of  atmospheric  changes, 
thus  causing  a  rising  or  falling  of  the  black  indicator  hand  of  the 
barometer.  This  hand  swings  on  a  pivot  and  is  operated  by  means 
of  the  levers,  chain  and  spring.  The  dial  or  face  of  the  ordinary 
barometer  is  divided  into  inches  from  26  to  31,  and  between  the 
inches  into  lesser  spaces  of  1/10  of  an  inch.  Around  the  dial  are 
the  words  stormy,  rain,  change,  fair  and  very  dry.  The  instru- 
ment is  not  infallible  and  at  times  the  black  hand  indicates  a 
change  that  does  not  occur.  The  barometer  warns  you  of  probable 
weather  conditions  or  changes.  On  the  glass  is  a  light  colored 
hand  with  a  brass  knob  which  may  be  fixed  in  position  over  the 
black  hand.  Any  subsequent  change  will  be  shown  by  the  differ- 
ence between  the  positions  of  the  hands. 

CHARTS. 

The  Marine  Charts  in  common  use  are  drawn  on  what  is  known 
as  the  Mercator  Projection  and  are  used.,,  for  general  navigation. 
The  meridians  are  all  drawn  as  straight  lines  perpendicular  to  the 
equator  and  at  equal  distances  from  each  other.  The  parallels  of 
latitude  are  also  laid  as  straight  lines  parallel  to  the  equator  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  meridians,  but  not  at  equal  distances.  The 
spaces  between  the  lines  which  represent  parallels  increase  as  your 
latitude  moves  north  or  south  away  frorri  the  equator.  When 
measuring  distances,  be  careful  to  use  the  scale  on  the  side  of  the 
chart  between  the  parallels  where  your  course  is  laid.  The  ad- 
vantage gained  by  the  use  of  this  chart  is  having  the  course  be- 
tween two  places  represented  by  a  straight  line. 

PARALLEL    RULES. 

The  ordinary  black  ruler  with  brass  joints  is  used  to  transfer 
the  direction  of  a  bearing  or  course  to  the  nearest  compass  rose 
on  the  chart,  thereby  ascertaining  its  name  and  value. 

To  transfer  your  course,  place  the  rule  on  the  chart  with  the 
outer  edge  of  one  side  of  the  rule  lining  up  between  the  point  of 
departure  and  the  destination. 

Hold  this  side  firmly  on  the  chart  and  open  the  rule  in  the 
direction  of  the  nearest  compass  rose.  Then  hold  the  extended  sid 
firmly  and  close  the  rule,  repeating  this  operation  until  the  inner 
edge  of  the  side  of  the  nearest  rule  crosses  the  centre  of  the  rose. 
Your  course  is  determined  by  referring  to  the  point  where  the 
rule  crosses  the  compass  rose, 


278  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 

FIELD   PARALLEL   RULES. 

The  Field  Parallel  Rule  is  especially  adapted  for  use  with  ocean 
charts  and  is  made  of  box  wood.  One  side  is  divided  into  de- 
grees and  the  other  side  into  points,  half  and  quarter  points.  By 
laying  it  down  on  the  course  you  wish  to  determine  and  having 
its  centre  mark  on  a  meridian  line,  you  can  at  once  read  off  the 
true  course  on  the  divided  edge,  where  it  is  cut  by  the  meridian 
line. 

DIVIDERS. 

Dividers  are  used  to  measure  distances  on  charts.  They  should 
be  of  good  quality.  The  points  are  of  tempered  steel  and  the  upper 
parts  of  brass.  The  joint  should  not  be  too  stiff  and  the  points  not 
too  fine. 

COURSE   PROTRACTOR. 

The  ordinary  Course  Protractor  is  a  celluloid  compass  rose  with 
a  long  arm  or  string  attached,  and  is  used  to  lay  courses.  The 
method  of  operation  is  to  place  the  centre  of  the  rose  over  the 
position  from  which  your  course  starts,  and  then  move  the  arm 
until  it  crosses  the  centre  of  the  nearest  compass  rose  printed  on 
the  chart.  Hold  the  arm  firmly  in  position  and  revolve  the  cel- 
luloid rose  until  it  matches  the  printed  rose.  Then  hold  the  cel- 
luloid rose  firmly  in  position  and  swing  the  arm  until  its  centre 
line  touches  your  objective  point.  The  point  at  which  the  line 
on  the  arm  crosses  the  celluloid  compass  rose  will  give  you  your 
direction.  By  measuring  the  space  between  the  points  with  the 
dividers  and  applying  them  to  the  scale  at  the  side  of  that  section 
of  the  chart  on  which  you  are  working,  you  can  determine  the 
length  of  your  course. 

GNOMONIC   CHARTS. 

Gnomonic  Charts  are  used  for  ' 'Great  Circle"  or  ocean  sailing 
and  also  for  navigating  in  the  polar  regions.  The  projection  is 
that  of  a  sphere  with  the  greatest  diameter  at  the  equator,  having 
the  parallels  of  longitude  arcing  toward  the  poles,  and  those  of 
latitude  appearing  as  convex  lines  north  and  south  of  the  equator. 

POLYCONIC  CHARTS. 

Each  parallel  is  represented  on  a  plane  by  the  development  of 
a  cone  having  the  parallel  for  its  base.  The  degrees  on  the  par- 
allel preserve  their  true  length.  The  Polyconic  Chart  is  used  for 
short  distances  on  the  coast  or  within  harbors.  The  distances  are 
to  be  measured  on  a  scale  of  miles  which  is  printed  on  the  chart. 


All  charts  that  are  required  should  be  provided  by  the  owners 
of  vessels  as  part  of  the  ship's  outfit,  thus  insuring  the  possession 
by  the  captains  of  all  their  ships,  of  the  very  latest  information  the 
.Government  has  to  offer.  The  Government  is  engaged  in  cor- 
recting the  charting  of  the  sections  close  to  the  coast  by  means 
of  the  wire  drag,  and  as  these  waters  are  in  continual  use  by  navi- 
gators it  is  well  for  the  owners  of  vessels  to-  make  sure  the  charts 
aboard  are  of  the  latest  issues.  Charts  when  old,  are  liable  to  be 
incorrect,  and  if  the  captain  is  required  to  purchase  the  charts 
himself  the  old  charts  may  be  continued  in  use  long  after  they  are 
out  of  date. 


THE      MERCHANT     MARINE      MANUAL  279 

PATENT    LOG. 

The  log  consists  of  the  register,  the  log  line  and  the  rotator. 

The  register  is  a  brass  cylinder  containing  a  system  of  cog- 
wheels which  engage  together  and  operate  the  indicator  hands 
which  revolve  on  the  faces  of  dials  on  the  upper  side  of  the  register. 
The  register  is  fixed  in  a  horizontal  position  by  a  shoe  which  is 
made  fast  to  the  taffrail  on  either  side  of  the  ship.  A  governor 
is  often  used  to  equalize  the  speed  of  the  register. 

The  log  line,  which  is  from  200  to  400  feet  in  length,  is  attached 
at  one  end  to  an  eye  on  the  end  of  the  register  spindle  and  at  the 
other  end,  to  the  rotator. 

The  rotator  is  a  brass  cylinder,  one  end  of  which  tapers  to 
the  eye  to  which  the  log  line  is  tied.  Radiating  from  the  shell  of 
the  rotator  are  fins  with  a  pitch  quite  similar  to  the  blades  of  a 
propeller.  When  the  rotator  is  being  drawn  through  the  water  by 
the  headway  of  the  vessel,  a  revolving  motion  is  imparted  by  these 
fins  and  transmitted,  by  means  of  the  log  line,  to  the  register, 
causing  the  hands  to  revolve  on  the  clocklike  faces  which  are 
divided  into  spaces  representing  miles  and  subdivided  into  spaces 
which  represent  tenths  of  miles.  The  speed  of  the  vessel  within 
a  given  space  of  time  may  be  approximated  by  reading  the  num- 
ber of  miles  indicated  on  the  register.  Always  have  the  hands 
set  at  zero  before  launching  the  log.  It  is  very  necessary  to  keep 
the  moving  parts  of  the  register  well  oiled  as  the  cog-wheels  are 
subjected  to  severe  friction  and  quickly  wear  out  if  neglected. 

SUBMARINE    SIGNALS. 

Submarine,  or  under  water  signals,  are  usually  sent  out  from 
lightships  and  the  source  of  each  signal  is  known  by  the  num- 
ber of  strokes,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  number  of  a  fire  alarm 
box  is  indicated.  The  signals  are  sent  out  by  striking  a  bell,  and 
are  picked  up  by  the  receiving  apparatus  on  the  vessel  which  is 
attached  to  the  inside  of  the  hull,  under  the  water  on  each  bow. 
Prom  this  apparatus  wires  extend  to  an  instrument  which  is 
located  in  the  pilot  house  and  is  similar  to  a  telephone. 

From  the  tone  of  the  bell,  as  heard  on  either  bow,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  judge  your  direction  from  the  lightship  as  well  as  the 
approximate  distance  you  may  be  away  from  it. 

MORSE    CODE    LAMPS. 

Morse  Code  Lamps  are  made  in  a  great  many  different  styles 
and  types,  suitable  for  vessels  of  all  descriptions.  They  are  used 
to  transmit  messages  or  signals  at  night  time  in  clear  weather. 

Note. — The  Morse  code  is  described  in  full  in  the  Signal  section 
of  this  book. 

COSTON  LIGHTS  (Friction) 

These  are  flare  torches,  and  to  light  them  you  remove  the  cap 
and  strike  as  you  would  a  safety  match.  They  burn  about  four 
minutes  and  are  used  when  calling  for  a  pilot,  making  distress 
signals,  etc.  A  somewhat  similar  light  which  ignites  when  wetted, 
is  used  to  throw  into  the  water,  in  case  a  man  falls  overboard  at 
night,  thereby  aiding  in  his  rescue. 


280  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

OF 

MASTERS  OF  VESSELS. 


The  United  States  Statutes  place  the  master  of  a  vessel  in 
complete  command  and  he  is  responsible  for  the  safety  of  the  ves- 
sel, her  passengers,  crew  and  cargo.  The  master  is  the  responsible 
agent  of  the  owners  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  ship,  and  he 
cannot  be  relieved  of  this  responsibility  so  long  as  he  is  competent 
to  attend  to  his  duties. 

When  a  vessel  is  stranded  or  obliged  through  accident  to  put 
into  a  port  in  distress,  the  master  should  at  once  communicate 
with  the  owners  advising  them  of  the  nature  of  the  casualty.  In 
the  meantime  he  is  to  be  governed  by  his  best  judgment  for  the 
preservation  of  the  persons  and  property  under  his  care.  It  is 
proper  for  him  to  obtain  the  advice  of  local  competent  advisors,  if 
immediate  measures  are  necessary  for  the  recovery  or  repair  of 
the  ship  or  the  preservation  of  the  cargo. 

It  rests  with  the  master  to  decide  whether  he  will  follow  the 
advice  of  these  officials  or  not  as  he  is  the  responsib-c  agent  and 
must,  in  an  emergency,  act  as  if  he  were  the  owner. 

A  careful  record  should  be  kept  of  all  transactions,  both  for 
the  protection  of  the  owners  and  che  master. 

It  would  seem  proper  here  to  refer  to  the  duties  of  the  master 
as  fixed  by  law,  with  the  language  of  which  the  master  should  be 
familiar. 

DUTY  OF  MASTER  IN  CASE  OF  COLLISION. 
"BE  IT  ENACTED  BY  THE  SENATE  AND  HOUSE  OF  REP- 
RESENTATIVES OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  OP  AMERICA  IN 
CONGRESS  ASSEMBLED,  That  in  every  case  of  collision  between 
two  vessels  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  master  or  person  in  charge 
of  each  vessel,  if  and  so  far  as  he  can  do  so  without  serious  danger 
to  his  own  vessel,  crew,  and  passengers  (if  any),  to  stay  by  the 
other  vessel  until  he  has  ascertained  that  she  has  no  need  of 
further  assistance,  and  to  render  to  the  other  vessel,  her  master, 
crew,  and  passengers  (if  any)  such  assistance  as  may  be  practi- 
cable and  as  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  save  them  from  any 
danger  caused  by  the  collision,  and  also  to  give  to  the  master  or 
person  in  charge  of  the  other  vessel  the  name  of  his  own  vessel 
and  her  port  of  registry,  or  the  port  or  place  to  which  she  belongs, 
and  also  the  names  of  the  ports  or  places  from  which  and  to 
which  she  is  bound.  If  he  fails  so  to  do  and  no  reasonable 
cause  for  such  failure  is  shown,  the  collision  shall,  in  the  absence 
of  proof  to  the  contrary,  be  deemed  to  have  been  caused  by  his 
wrongful  act,  neglect  or  default." 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  281 

SHIP'S  BUSINESS. 
Average. 

Average  is  of  two  kinds — General  and  Particular. 

Any  loss  or  expense  which  is  voluntarily  incurred  in  an  endeavor 
to  save  the  ship  and  .cargo  is  termed  General  Average.  The  fol- 
lowing losses  are  classed  under  General  Average: 

1.  Slipping  anchors  and  chains.   . 

2.  Damage  done  to  the  vessel,  her  engines  or  equipment  in  an 
effort  to  float   the  vessel. 

3.  Jettisoning  of  cargo. 

4.  The  burning  of  cargo  as  fuel,   in  order  to  reach  port. 

In  General  Average  the  loss  is  shared  by  all  those  having 
financial  interest  in  the  ship  and  cargo,  the  amount  being  propor- 
tional to  the  value  the  owner  of  the  vessel  and  the  shipper  has  at 
:  stake. 

Average  Bond — Is  a  mutual  agreement  between  the  master  and 
the  consignees  of  the  cargo,  wherein  they  agree  to  pay  their  share 
of  the  Average.  The  owner,  master  or  agent  of  a  vessel  may  re- 
quire a  deposit  in  addition  to  or  in  lieu  of  the  Bond.  Whenever  a 
General  Average  case  arises,  the  Average  Bond  should  always 
be  signed  before  the  cargo  is  delivered. 

Average  Adjuster — Is  one  who  determines  the  amount  payable 
by.  each  party.  He  is  usually  governed  by  the  York- Antwerp  rules 
in  reaching  his  conclusions,  and  the  use  of  this  code  of  rules  is 
frequently  stipulated  in  the  Charter  Party. 

Particular  Average — Is  a  loss  which  is  occasioned  by  the  perils 
of  the  seas  and  for  which  insurance  is  provided.  The  following 
losses  are  classed  under  the  head  of  Particular  Average: 

1.  Loss  of  spars  through  stress  of  weather. 

2.  Stranding. 

3.  Collision. 

4.  Fire. 

5.  Damage  to  hull  or  machinery  through  stress  of  weather. 

6.  Loss   of  equipment  through  stress  of  weather. 

7.  Damage   to   cargo    through    stress    of   weather. 

8.  Damage  to  cargo  in   loading  or  discharging. 

In  Particular  Average  there  is  no  general  or  joint  contribu- 
tion as  the  losses  are  assumed  by  the  parties  on  whom  they  fall. 

The -Underwriters  .who  carry  the  ship  risk,  pay  only- for  damage 
sustained  by  the  vessel;  while  the  Underwriters  who  .carry  the 
cargo  risk,  pay  only  for  damage  to  cargo. 

Particular  Average  losses  of  less  than  three  per  cent  of  the 
value  insured  are  not  as  a  rule,  recoverable. 

DEFINITION    OF   TERMS. 

Barratry— -Is  any  illegal  or  fraudulent  act  committed  .  by  the 
master  of  a  vessel  or  any  member  of  the.  crew,  to  the  prejudice  of 
the  owner  of  the  vessel. 

Bill  of  Exchange — Is  an  order  or  request  from  one  party  to  an- 
other directing  the  latter  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  money  to  the 
third  party  or  person  named  on  the  bill.  The  bill  is  made  payable 
either  on  demand  or  on  a  certain  specified  date. 


282  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

"Bill  of  Health — Is  a  certificate  stating  the  health  condition 
with  reference  to  contagious  diseases  at  the  port  of  departure.  The 
certificate  is  obtained  by  the  master,  in  foreign  ports  from  the 
American  Consul  and  at  American  ports  from  the  Collector  of 
Customs. 

Bill  of  Lading — Is  a  receipt  for  the  cargo  which  was  placed  on 
board.  The  master  must  assure  himself  that  the  goods  are  actually 
on  board  and  have  been  received  in  good  condition.  There  should 
be  four  bills  of  lading,  two  to  be  retained  by  the  shipper  and  two 
by  the  master.  Before  signing  the  bills  of  lading,  the  master 
should  make  certain  that  they  are  consistent  with  the  charter 
party  and  that  the  ship's  interest  is  fully  protected.  At  the  port 
of  discharge  the  cargo  is  deliverable  to  the  party  presenting  the 
bill  of  lading  endorsed  by  the  shipper. 

Masters  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  coastwise  coal  trade  should 
retain  two  copies  of  the  bill  of  lading.  The  bill  of  lading  should 
contain  the  following  information: 

1.  The  time  of  reporting  at  the  loading  berth. 

2.  The  days  or  hours  the  piers  worked   from  the  time  of  re- 
porting until  the  vessel  was  loaded. 

3.  The   number  of  hours   or  days   from   the   time   of  reporting 
until  the  vessel  was  loaded. 

On  arrival  at  the  port  of  discharge,  the  following  information 
should  also  be  included: 

1.  Time  of  reporting  at  the  discharging  pier. 

2.  The   days   or  hours   the   pier  worked   from   the   time   of  re- 
porting until  the  vessel  was  discharged. 

3.  The   number   of  days   or  hours   from   the   time   of  reporting 
until  the  vessel  was  discharged. 

BONDS. 

Bottomry  Bond — A  contract  pledging  the  vessel  as  security 
for  money  advanced  for  the  purpose  of  financing  her  voyage.  A 
Bottomry  Bond  should  only  be  raised  when  it  is  impossible  to 
obtain  credit.  Money  obtained  on  a  Bottomry  Bond  should  be 
expended  only  for  what  is  absolutely  necessary  to  complete  the 
voyage. 

A  Bottomry  Bond  carries  an  agreed  rate  of  interest.  On  the 
safe  arrival  of  the  vessel  the  amount  advanced  is  paid  plus  the 
interest.  If  the  vessel  is  lost  the  lender  loses  the  amount  advanced. 

CERTIFICATES. 

1.  "Carpenter"  Certificate— Is  a  certificate  issued  by  the  Com- 
missioner  of   Navigation   which   permits   a   new   vessel   to  proceed 
on  her  trial  trip  or  to  another  port  to  be  completed.     This  certifi- 
cate is  issued  without  making  the  regular  inspection  and  the  Custom 
House  certificate  is  not  required. 

2.  Certificate  of  Enrollment  or  license — Is  a  certificate  issued 
by   the   Collector   of   Customs,    by   which   a   vessel   is   permitted   to 
engage  in  the  coastal  or  inland  trade. 

3.  Fuel  Oil  Certificate — Is  a  certificate  issued  by  the  Secretary 
of  Commerce,  permitting  the  use  on  a  vessel  of  fuel  oil  for  com- 
bustion in  the  steam  boilers. 

4.  Certificate    of    Inspection — Is    a    certificate    issued    annually 
by  the  U.  S.  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  after  a  vessel  has  been 
duly  examined  and  approved  by  the  Local  Inspectors. 

(a)  A  vessel,  her  boilers  and  equipment  must  be  inspected 
at  least  once  each  year. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  283 

(b)  Temporary  Certificate — Is  a  certificate  issued  by  the  Local 
Inspectors  after  completing  their  inspection;  and  permits  a  vessel 
to  proceed  on  her  voyage  before   the   regular   inspection   certificate 
has  been  duly  prepared  and  executed. 

(c)  Certificate   of  Amendment — Is   a   certificate   amending   the 
regular   certificate  which   permits   of  a  change   being   made   in   the 
route  of  the  vessel  or  in  the  number  of  men  required  to  be  on  board. 

(d)  Certificate    of   lost    or    destroyed    License — Is    a    certificate 
issued  to  a  licensed  officer  if  his  license  has  been  lost  or  destroyed. 
It  is  in  force   for  the   unexpired   period   of   the   regular   license.     A 
license  is  issued  for  a  period  of  five  years. 

(e)  Oil    Permit — Is    a    certificate    which    allows    a    passenger 
vessel  to  carry  refined  petroleum  which  will  not  ignite  at  a  tem- 
perature  of   less   than   110   F.,    on    routes   where    there    is   no   other 
practicable  method  of  transportation.  • 

(f)  Certificate  of  Seaworthiness — Is  a  certificate  permitting  a 
vessel  to  proceed   after  the   vessel  has   met   with   an   accident.     It 
is   frequently   issued   to   allow   a   vessel   to   proceed,    without   freight 
or  passengers,  to  another  port  to  be  repaired. 

A  similar  certificate  is  issued  by  the  Classification  Societies. 

5.  Certificate  of  Register — Is  a  certificate  or  license  issued 
by  the  Collector  of  Customs  allowing  a  vessel  to  engage  in  the 
foreign  trade. 


Charter  Party — A  Charter  Party  is  a  contract  wherein  the 
shipowner,  agent  or  master  covenants  for  the  use  of  the  ship  by  the 
charterer.  Charter  Parties  are  executed  either  for  a  specific  voy- 
age or  for  a  definite  period  of  time. 

TERMS  OF  CHARTER  PARTY. 

The  principal  clauses  incorporated  in  a  Charter  Party  are  as 
follows: 

1.  The  vessel  shall  be  tight,  staunch,   seaworthy  and  fitted  for 
the  voyage. 

2.  The  freight  shall  be   paid   under   stipulated   conditions. 

3.  Lay  days  or  hours. 

4.  Stevedore   expense   and   lighterage. 

5.  The  cargo  is  to  be  loaded  or  discharged  at  such  places  as 
will  permit  the  vessel  to  lay  safely  afloat  at  all  stages  of  the  tide. 

6.  General  Average  agreements. 

7.  Demurrage — A  fixed  sum  paid  by  the  shipnor  or  consignees 
to  the  shipowner  for  whatever  time  the  ship  is  detained  after  the 
expiration  of  the  lay  days. 

8.  Dispatch   Money — The    sum   paid    by   the    shipowner   to   the 
charterer,  for  dispatching  the  ship  before  the  expiration  of  the  lay 
days. 

9.  Towage  and  Salvage  clause. 

10.  Exemption  of  owner  from  liability  in  accordance  with  the 
U.   S.   Statutes. 


284  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

DEFINITION  OP  TERMS. 

Commission — The  sum  paid  to  a  ship  broker  for  negotiating  the 
charter  or  for  booking  freight.  When  a  commission  is  paid  an 
agent  for  handling  or  transacting  a  ship's  business,  it  is  called  a 
husbanding  fee. 

Consignee — The  party  to  whom  the  goods  or  cargo  is  shipped. 

Constructive  Total  Loss — When  a  vessel  is  so  badly  damaged 
that  the  cost  of  repairs  would  exceed  the  value  of  the  vessel,  she  is 
said  to  be  a  Constructive  Total  Loss. 

Dead  Freight — Is  the  freight  charge  paid  on  unused  or  vacant 
stowage  space.  [When  the  amount  of  cargo  shipped  is  less  than  the 
Jx)tal  amount  specified  in  the  Charter  Party.] 

Disbursement — Is  money  expended  by  the  master  in  paying  the 
expenses  of  the  ship.  Supporting  vouchers  should  always  be  ob- 
tained by  the  master  to  submit  to  the  owner  when  settling  his  ac- 
counts. 

Insurance  Policy — A  contract  which  specifies  the  conditions  and 
perils  against  which  a  ship  is  insured.  If  it  can  be  proven  the  ship 
was  unseaworthy  when  insured,  the  policy  is  nullified. 

Inventory — A  list  of  the  ship's  stores  and  equipment. 

Jetsam — Cargo  cast  overboard  in  an  effort  to  save  the  vessel. 

Jettison — The  act  of  throwing  over  the  cargo.  When  the  cargo 
floats  it  is  termed  "Floatsam";  when  it  sinks  but  is  buoyed  for  fu- 
ture salvage,  it  is  termed  "Ligan". 

Lien — A  legal  right  held  over  the  cargo  until  the  freight  is  paid. 

Light  Dues — Charges  levied  by  the  government  for  maintaining 
the  aids  to  navigation.  They  are  collected  by  the  U.  S.  Collector 
of  Customs  in  the  form  of  tonnage  dues. 

Manifest — A  document  containing  full  particulars  of  the  ship, 
her  passengers,  cargo  and  stores. 

Primage— A  sum  paid  by  the  Charterer  in  addition  to  the 
freight. 

Protest — A  document  signed  by  the  master,  before  a  Notary  or 
a  Consul  which  describes  the  circumstances  and  the  nature  of  the 
damage  that  has  happened  to  his  vessel. 

When  a  vessel  meets  with  an  accident,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
master  to  note  a  protest  within  twenty-four  hours  of  the  vessel's 
arrival  in  port.  The  protest  may  afterwards  be  extended.  In  some 
countries  the  protest,  to  be  effective,  must  be  noted  within  a  certain 
specified  period  of  time.  Copies  of  the  protest  should  always  be 
sent  to  the  owner  in  order  that  a  claim  may  be  made  upon  the  un- 
derwriters. 

Some  masters  are  inclined  to  delay  or  avoid  noting  a  protest, 
especially  if  damage  is  not  plainly  evident,  with  the  mistaken  idea 
that  noting  a  protest  will  injure  their  standing  with  the  under- 
writers. A  failure  to  immediately  note  a  protest  is  more  likely  to 
be  harmful  to  a  master,  and  often  results  in  loss  to  the  owners. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL  285 

Respondentia  Bond — Is  a  bond  by  which  the  cargo  is  pledged 
as  security  for  money  advanced,  when  credit  cannot  otherwise  be 
arranged.  It  is  usually  executed  to  obtain  money  for  the  purpose 
of  forwarding  a  cargo. 

Salvage — A  sum  of  money  paid  for  saving  a  vessel  or  her  cargo 
or  both,  and  is  determined  on  the  basis  of  risk  and  value.' 

Seaman — Every  person  having  the  command  of  any  vessel  be- 
longing- to  any  citizen  of  the  United  States  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
the  "Master"  thereof;  and  every,  person  (apprentices  excepted)  who 
shall  be  employed  or  engaged  to  serve  in  any  capacity  on  board  the 
same  shall  be  deemed  and  taken  to  be  a  seaman. 

Ship's  Articles — A  list  giving  the  name  of  each  member  of  the 
crew  and  his  respective  station  on  board;  also  the  terms  arid  con- 
ditions under  which  they  sign  on  for  the,  voyage.  The  ship's  arti- 
cles are  executed  before  the  tJ.  S.  Shipping  Commissioner. 

Survey — The  examination  of  a  vessel  by  a  surveyor  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  a  rating  from  a  classification  society.  A  vessel  is 
surveyed  when  damaged  to  determine  the  amount  of  repair/  neces- 
sary to  make  the  vessel  seaworthy. 

War  Risk  Insurance — A  form  of  policy  which  insures  a  vessel 
against  acts  of  the  enemy.  War  Risk  .Insurance  is  also  provided 
for  the  crews  of  vessels  during  time  of  war. 


U.    S.    CUSTOMS    REGULATIONS. 
Clearance. 

Clearance  Permits  authorizing  the  vessel  to  leave  the  confines 
of  the  port  are  required  for  all  vessels  in  the  foreign  trade  and  in 
some  cases  for  those  engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade. 

Clearance  Permits  issued  to  vessels  in  foreign  trade  .  are  of 
four  varieties. 

1.  Those  for  vessels  bound  direct  to  a  foreign  port,  either  with 
cargo  or  in  ballast. 

2.  For  vessels  laden  with  foreign  cargo  bound  to  another  do- 
mestic port  to  finish  unloading. 

3.  For  vessels  laden  with  domestic  cargo  destined  to  a  foreign 
port. 

4.  For  foreign  vessels  in  ballast,  bound  to  a  domestic  port. 

The  pre-requisites  for  clearance  of  any  vessel,  foreign  or  Amer- 
ican, are  contingent  upon  the  conditions  under  which  she  arrives 
in  port.  In  each  and  every  case  before  clearance-  is  granted,  evi- 
dence must  be  presented  that  all  requirements  demanded  by  cus- 
toms regulations  on  entry  of  the  vessel  have  been  complied  with, 
and  that  all  entry  fees  or  other  charges  against  the  vessel  have  been 
paid. 


286 THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 

(1)  For  clearance   direct   to  a   foreign   port   the   master  must 
present  the   manifest  in  proper  form,   covering  all  goods   laden   on 
his  vessel,  to  which  manifest  he  must  take  oath. 

(2)  When  clearance  is  desired  for  a  vessel  laden  with  foreign 
cargo  bound  to  another  domestic  port  to  finish  unloading,  the  mas- 
ter must,  if  there  be  dutiable  cargo,  give  bond  for  the  delivery  of 
the  residue  of  the  cargo.     A  copy  of  the  inward  manifest,  to  which 
is  attached  a  permit  to  proceed,  is  certified  to  by  the  collector. 

(3)  Vessels   laden  with   domestic  cargo   destined   to   a  foreign 
port  and  clearing  via  another  domestic  port,  must  be  equipped  with 
an  outward  foreign  manifest  certified  to  by  the  collector  together 
with  a  permit  to  proceed. 

(4)  Masters  of  all  vessels  clearing  to  a   foreign  port  are   re- 
quired to  make  oath  to  certain  postal  requirements. 

Vessels  clearing  foreign,  desiring  to  carry  passengers  must  ex- 
hibit and  display  their  certificate  of  inspection  which  is  issued  by 
the  U.  S.  Steamboat  Inspection  Service. 

(5)  Masters  of  vessels  clearing  for  European  ports,  Argentina 
or     Mexico,     must     make     oath     that'    all     meats     and     meat     food 
products  contained  in  their  cargoes  have  been  inspected  and  passed 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

(6)  All  vessels  destined  for  European  ports  with  cattle,  swine 
or  goats  must  furnish  a  certificate  from  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture before  clearance  is  issued. 

(7)  The  master  of  any  vessel  on  which  wireless  is  required  to 
be  installed,  shall  furnish  a  certificate  of  its  efficiency. 

(8)  Masters   of  American   vessels   must   furnish   their   articles 
and   two  copies   of  their   crew   list   for   inspection   and   comparison. 
One  crew  list  is  retained  Ky  the  Collector,  and  the  other  is  held  by 
the  master  until  the  vessel  returns  to  the  United  States.     Crew  lists 
are  not  required  if  the  crew  has  been  signed  on  before,  an  American 
Consul. 

(9)  Clearance  Coastwise  for  American  vessels  operating  under 
enrollment  consists   of  'delivering   duplicate   manifests   to   the   Col- 
lector.    The  master  testifies  under  oath  as  to  the  correctness  of  this 
manifest.     One  copy  is  certified  and   returned   to  him   with  a  per- 
mit to  proceed. 

ENTRY. 

All  vessels  engaged  in  the  foreign  trade  are  required  to  enter 
at  the  Custom  House.  Fishing  vessels  under  enrollment  with  a 
permit  to  touch  and  trade  must  enter;  ajso  all  American  yachts 
arriving  from  a  foreign  country;  and  in  some  cases  vessels  engaged 
in  the  coastwise  trade. 

(Note) — The  agent  of  a  vessel  due  to  arrive  from  a  foreign 
port  should  obtain  a  preliminary  entry,  which  permits  the  vessel  if 
arriving  at  night;  or  on  Sunday  or  on  a  holiday,  to  at  once  begin 
discharging  the  cargo. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL. 287 

Before  the  permit  is  issued  the  agent  must  furnish  a  bond,  the 
amount  of  which  is  based  upon  the  nature  and  value  of  the  cargo. 

Vessels  arriving-  in  ballast  to  load  domestic  cargo,  do  not  re- 
quire a  permit  and  are  not  obliged  to  furnish  a  bond. 

On  entry  at  the  Custom  House  the  master  of  a  vessel  shall  pre- 
sent the  following  documents: 

(1)  The   Vessel's    Register    (American    vessels    in    the    foreign 
trade  operate  under  a  register). 

(2)  Duplicate  copies  of  Consular  bills  of  health. 

(3)  Duplicate  copies  of  the  inward  foreign  manifest  in  proper 
form.     (The  master  is  fined  for  failure  to  produce  the  manifest.) 

(4)  One  copy  of  store  list. 

(5)  One  copy  of  crew   list.     [No  crew   list   is  necessary   if  the 
vessel  is  sailing  under  Consular  articles.] 

(6)  A  Spirits   Manifest  in  proper  form   of  wines  and   distilled 
spirits  on  board. 

(7)  A  passenger  list,  if  the  vessel  is  engaged  in  carrying  pas- 
sengers. 

(8)  Duplicate  copies  of  Radio  Declaration  if  the  vessel  is  re- 
quired to  be  equipped  with  wireless. 

(9)  Tonnage  Tax  receipts. 

Note. — In  the  absence  of  the  master  for  a  good  reason  the  first 
officer  may  testify  under  oath  instead  of  the  master. 

Vessels  arriving  for  bunker  coal  and  not  remaining  in  port 
more  than  forty-eight  hours  are  not  required  to  enter. 

ENTRY  OF  VESSEL  COASTWISE. 

The  master  must  present  the  following  documents: 

(1)  A  quarantine  certificate. 

(2)  If  sailing  under  register,  the  register  shall  be  presented. 

(3)  Two  manifests  and  one  store  list. 

(4)  Passenger  list,  if  vessel  is  engaged  in  carrying  passengers 

(5)  Spirits  manifest. 

In  the  absence  of  the  master  for  a  good  reason,  the  first  officer 
may  testify  under  oath  instead  of  the  master. 

When  a  vessel  enters  from  a  foreign  port  to  become  engaged 
in  the  coastwise  trade,  the  register  should  be  surrendered  and  an 
enrollment  certificate  obtained. 

If  a  Certificate  of  Register  or  an  enrollment  is  allowed  to  ex- 
pire and  operation  of  the  vessel  is  continued,  the  master  is  fined. 

Masters  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  foreign  and  coastwise  trade 
should  familiarize  themselves  with  the  customs  regulations.  Prompt 
compliance  with  the  requirements  of  these  regulations  will  relieve 
the  master  and  the  owners  of  the  vessel  whom  he  represents  in  the 
transaction  of  the  Custom  House  business  from  the  probable  pay- 
ment of  penalties. 


'288  THE    'MERCHANT     MARINE !   MANUAL 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  SHIP'S  OFFICERS. 


.  The  •  progressive  ship';s  officer  is  never  satisfied  with  the  pos- 
session of  knowledge  sufficient  merely  to  navigate  his  Vessel 
safely  from  port : to ,  port ;  but  .'is  constantly  on  .the  alert  to  obtain 
information  concerning  subjects  which  will  be  of  assistance  to 
him  when  confronted  with  the  many  problems  which  arise  from 
•day  to  day,  while  following-  his  profession.  .  .  • 

Many  interesting  books-  on  maritime  subjects  are  published, 
to  which  the  seeker  after  knowledge  'has  easy  access.  Special 
attention  is  'directed  to  books  which  enter  into  detail  in  the  study 
of  the  construction,  the  stability  and  the  ballasting  of  ships. 

Every  ship's  officer  should  endeavor  to  become  thoroughly 
versed  in  these  subjects,  as, he  will  be  materially  assisted  thereby 
in  the  operation  and  maintenance  of  the  property  intrusted  to 
his  care.  .  . 

The  question  of  stability  is  <  most-  important  and  -  should  be 
carefully  studied.  The  notes  which; follow  were  < found  to  be  very 

•  helpful  to  the  Author  of  this  book   while  .  serving    in    the    Merchant 
Marine,   and  desirous:  of  assisting  those  who  are   interested   in  the 
welfare    of    our-  merchant    fleets,    it  >has    been    decided    to,  publish 
them     as     the     closing     chapter     of    THE     MERCHANT  -  MARINE 
MANUAL. 

STABILITY   AND    BUOYANCY. 

1.  There  are  two  kinds  of  stability  having  direct  influence  on 
the,-,  behavior  ;  of    floating    vessels,    DYNAMICAL  .'and  ;  STATICAL. 
The   former,    which   measures"  the    am'ount   of  mechanical   force   re- 
quired to  produce  a  given  angle  of  heel,   and  the  latter,  which  de- 
termines   the    righting   power    available    for '  regaining  the    upright 
position. 

2.  The   STATICAL   stability  of  a   ship   may  be   defined   as  .  the 
effort    which    it    makes" 'while    being    held    steadily'  in    an  '  inclined 

'position  by  a  mechanical-  couple,  to  return  to  its  -natural  -position 
of  'equilibrium  -(the  upright),  in- which  it  should  rest  'When  float- 
ing freely.  The  effort  is  measure'd  by  the  moment  Of'  the  couple 

•  formed  .by  its-  weight. and  buoyancy.         . 

3.  FORCTE  is 'anything  that  tends  'to  produce"  motion.     It  is  not 
h-ecessary   that  :the-  motion    shall  '  actually    take  -  place;      The    force 
that  would  produce  it  if  unbalanced,   may  be-  counteracted  by  one, 
or   several,    other  'forces.  .  , 

4.  (When  .a   force    is  r  exactly    balanced   by    one    or    more    other 
forces,  an  equilibrium  is  said  to  exist. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL,  289 

5.  A  MECHANICAL.  COUPLE  is   a  pair  of   equal  forces,   not 
at  the  same  point,  and  acting  in  opposite  directions.     The  perpen- 
dicular   distance    between    them    is    the    ARM    or    LEVER    of  'the 
COUPLE.      No   single    applied    force   can    produce    equilibrium,    and 
a  COUPLE  can  only  be  balanced  by  another,  possessing  the  same 
moment  and  applying  its  effort  to  turn  the  body  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection.    The  lengths  of  the  ARMS  need  not  be  equal,  but  in  each 
case   the   ARM   multiplied    by   the   weight  must   possess   the    same 
moment   in   order   to   produce  equilibrium. 

6.  ATTRACTION    OF    GRAVITATION    is    the    most    universal 
and  probably  the  most  important  force  in  nature.     While  it  varies 
slightly   in    different   regions   of   the    earth,    it   is    for    our   purpose, 
sufficiently   uniform    in   all   portions   of   the   inhabitable   globe.      No 
particle   of  matter   can   escape   its   influence,    but   its   effect   differs 
with    different    substances.     The    WEIGHT  Which,  it -causes  .also -dif- 
fers.     It    attracts    lead    more    than    iron;    iron    more    than    water; 
water  more  than  most  kinds  of  .wood. 

A  cubic  foot  of  fresh  water  weighs"  1,000  ounces  avoirdupois 
and  this  has  been  adopted  as  the  standard  of  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY 
with  which  all  other  substances,  including  sea  water,  are  com- 
pared. SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  of  fresh  water  is  generally  ex- 
pressed as  1.000;  sea  water  1.025;  and  sheet  platinum,  the  heaviest 
metal,  20.337,  etc.  Every  plane  figure  has  a  point  called  the  CEN- 
TER OF  GRAVITY:  In  a  circle,  it  is  in  the  center;  in  a  parallelo- 
gram, the  intersection  of  the  diagonals;  in  a  triangle  the  inter- 
section of  straight  lines  from  the  center  of  two  of  the  sides  to 
the  opposite  angles,  etc.  Suppose  any  one  of  these  figures  is  cut 
out  of  infinitely  thin  but  rigid  material  (thus  becoming  actually 
a  plane  figure),  the  center  of  gravity  is  the  point  within  the  fig- 
ure where  it  can  be  balanced  on  the  point  of  a  very  fine  nee.dle, 
and  the  pressure  upon  the  needle  represents  the  resultant  of  the 
attraction  of  gravitation  on  all  of  the  infinite  number  of  particles 
in  the  figure. 

7.  Every  SOLID  FIGURE  also  has  a  CENTER  OF  GRAVITY. 
In  a  sphere  it  is  the  center  and  in  a  cube  it  is  the  point  of  inter- 
section   of    diagonals    from    the    opposite    corners.      In    an    irregular 
figure   like   the   immersed   portion   of   a'  ship,    its   position   ii3   deter- 
mined by  a  more   complicated  process;   but  whatever  may,  be   the 
shape,   the   position   may   be   found   by   rules   comparatively   simple 
which  are  always  at  the  disposal  of  the  Naval  Architect. 

8.  The   CENTER  OF   GRAVITY   of  a  vessel   will   only  change 
when  weights  are  added  or  taken  out  of  the  vessel,   or  when  their 
position    is    changed.      It    consequently    changes    as    the    coal    and 
water    placed,  on    board    are    consumed;    double    bottom    tanks    are 
emptied  or  filled;   or  when  the  cargo  shifts. 

9.  BUOYANCY  is   floating  power   due  to  the  upward  pressure 
of   the  water. 

10.  The  enclosed  portion  of  the  ship  out  of  water  when  she  is 
afloat    is    the   RESERVE    BUOYANCY. 


290  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 

11.  The  CENTER  OP  BUOYANCY  is  a  very  important  factor 
of   stability.      When   a   vessel   is   placed    in   the   water,    it   sinks    till 
the  downward  pressure  of  gravity  is  balanced  by  the  upward  pres- 
sure of  the   fluid.     When  the  total  weight  of  the  vessel  is  exactly 
equal  to  that  of  the  water  displaced  (or  the  quantity  required  to  fill 
the   cavity  created  by  the  ship,   if  the  water  surrounding  it   could 
be   solidified   and   the   vessel   removed),    equilibrium    is    established. 
As  one  ton  of  salt  water  measures  35  cubic  feet,  it  is  evident  that 
the    immersed   volume    of   the    ship    (or    the   cubic    capacity   of   the 
cavity)    divided    by   35   will    give    its    weight,    or    DISPLACEMENT 
tonnage.     The   dimensions   of   this   cavity   or   figure  will  vary   with 
every   alteration   in    draught,    and   the   shape   with    every   variation 
in  trim  or  heel;  but  the  position  of  the  center  of  buoyancy  may  be 
found   in    every    case.      It   is   always   the   center   of    gravity    of   the 
displaced   water   and  this  point   is   sometimes   called   the   CENTER 
OF   DISPLACEMENT.      It    is   also   the    CENTER    OF    BUOYANCY 
for   that   particular   condition   of   the    ship,    and   the    point   through 
which   the   resultant   upward   pressure   of   the   water   may   be    con- 
ceived to  act.     The  position  of  the  center  of  buoyancy  for  several 
conditions  of  the  ship  (certainly  for  each  curve  of  stability)  should 
be  obtained  from  the  builders. 

When  the  ship  is  floating  freely  and  at  rest  (or  in  equilibrium), 
the  center  of  buoyancy  and  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  vessel  are 
always  in  the  same  vertical  line,  which,  when  the  vessel  is  on  an 
even  keel,  or  at  a  moderate  angle  of  heel,  passes  through  a  third 
paint  known  as  the  METACENTRE,  relatively  no  less  important 
than  the  other  two  factors  of  stability. 

12.  The    TRANSVERSE    METACENTRE    is    the    point    where 
a   vertical   line   passing   through   the   center   of   buoyancy   while    at 
small    angles    of    heel,    cuts    the    vertical    through    the    center    of 
buoyancy  when   the   ship   is   upright.      In    some   vessels    this   point 
does  not  vary  even  at  very  considerable  angles  of  heel.     It  is  not 
affected  by  the  position  of  weights,  but  depends  altogether  on  the 
lines   of   the   ship.      Its   height   above   the   center   of    buoyancy   and 
from   the   base   or  bottom   of  the  keel   can   be   calculated   from   the 
plans  of  the  vessel  and  should  be  supplied  by  the  builders,  for  the 
several  water  lines  from  the  light  condition  to  the  deepest  draught 
to  which  it  is  intended  to  load  the  ship.     It  is  the  point  below  which 
the   center  of  gravity   of   the   ship  must  be  always   kept,    if   stable 
equilibrium   is   to  be  maintained. 

13.  INERTIA   is   that   property   of   matter   by   which   it    tends 
when  at  rest  to  remain  so,   or  when  in  motion  to  continue  moving 
in  the  same  direction,  unless  acted  on  by  some  other  force. 

14.  The   CENTER   OF   BUOYANCY   changes   when   the   vessel 
heels,   moving  out  to   the   submerging    side,    owing    to    the    change 
in  the  shape  of  the  immersed  portion  of  the  vessel. 

15.  When  the  METACENTRE  is  above  the  center  of  gravity, 
the  vessel  is  said  to  have  a  RIGHTING  LEVER;   when  below  the 
center   of   gravity,    it   has   an   UPSETTING   LEVER;    and    when    it 
coincides  with  the  center  of  gravity,  it  has  a  NEUTRAL  STABIL- 
ITY. 

16.  METACENTRIC  HEIGHT,    known   as   G.    M.,    is   increased 
by   adding  to  the   beam,   by   lowering   the   position   of   the   weights, 
or   by  -placing   more  weight   below  the   center   of  gravity. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL.  291 

17.  RANGE    OF    STABILITY   is    the   number   of   degrees   from 
the    upright    to    the   point    at    which    the    righting    lever    vanishes. 
Some  vessels,  under  certain  conditions  have  good  stability  at  mod- 
erate  angles,    while   others  have   good   stability    up   to    90    degrees. 
Excessive   stability  will   cause   a   ship   to   roll  violently  at   sea.      A 
moderate  G.  M.,  with  good  range,   is  probably  safer  and  certainly 
more  comfortable. 

18.  For   the   information   of   the    ship's   officers,   several   curves 
should  be  shown  on  a  diagram  of  stability  for  the  various  condi- 
tions,  that   is   to  say  from   the  lightest   draft   to   the  deepest,    and 
also  for  the   spent  conditions  when  coal,  water  and   stores  are  all 
consumed.     It  would  be  well  to  add   remarks   stating  the  smallest 
G.   M.   compatible  with  safety  at  sea  while  in  the  light  conditions 
and  also  for  moving  while  in  dock. 

19.  Next  to  a  sufficient  G.   M.,   the  most  important   factor  the 
seaman  has  to  consider  is  FREEBOARD,   which,   while   useless   by 
itself,  is  most  potent  in  increasing  the  range  when  combined  with 
suitable  metacentric  height. 

20.  To  fully  utilize  freeboard,  all  openings  that  might  be  put 
under   water    (even    if  heeling    only),    and    also    water-tight    decks 
or  flats,  must  be  kept  closed. 

21.  As    freeboard    is    purchased    by    RESERVE    BUOYANCY, 
it  is  apparent  that  any  flooding  of  compartments,  either  from  above 
or  caused  by  damage  sustained  to  the  skin  of  the  ship  will  lessen 
the    stability.      If    the    water   goes    down    through    the    hatches    or 
other  openings  above  the  water,  it  is  simply  extra  weight  of  a  most 
dangerous  nature   (at  the  rate  of  one  ton  for  every  35  cubic  feet), 
because  it  shifts  with  any  movement,  however  slight,  of  the  vessel, 
and  not   being  under   control   creates   its   own   momentum,    thereby 
placing  the  ship  in  extreme  jeopardy.     If  it  enters  through  a  hole 
caused  by  damage  to  the  skin  of  the  ship,  by  collision,  or  otherwise, 
the  water  will   rise   in   the  hull   to   the   level   of   the   water  around 
the  ship.     The  weight  and  stability  may  be  increased  temporarily 
during  the  process,  but  as  soon  as  the  water  is  level  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea,  the  weight  of  the  ship  will  be  the  same  as  it  was 
before  the  accident  occurred.     The  ship  floats  deeper  in  the  water 
because  the   buoyancy   of  a   compartment  filled   with   water  is   to- 
tally lost,  and  if  there  is  not  sufficient  remaining  reserve  buoyancy 
in  the  intact  portions  of  the  ship,  it  will  sink.     If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the   outer  skin   only   is  punctured,   the   water  thereby   entering   the 
double   bottom,   the  effect  is  exactly  the   same  as  if  water  ballast 
had  been  purposely  added  to  increase  the  G.  M.     Water  will  enter 
at  a  greater  pressure,  through  damage  sustained  low  down  on  the 
skin  of  a  vessel,   than  if  the  hole  is  at  the  water  line. 

22.  It  is  possible  to  give  a  ship  too  great  a  metacentric  height, 
thus    producing    violent   and    perhaps    dangerous    rolling,    and    it    is 
ilso    possible    to    have    too    much    freeboard    and    consequently    not 
enough  grip  of  the  water  while  in  a  light  condition,  so  that  while 
perhaps    stable    at   moderate    angles    of   heel,    a    dangerously    short 
range   may   be    created.      The   arms    of   stability   will,    if   they   are 
studied,   materially   lessen   this  risk.     The   vertical   position   of  the 
center  of  buoyancy  and  gravity  should,  in  the  changing  conditions, 


292  THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL, 

be  proportioned  to  the  total  depth  of  the  ship,  and  in  this  import- 
ant matter  the  designer  and  builder  should  secure  proper  adjust- 
ment of  the  arms  or  levers  of  the  couple,  thereby  supplying  suf- 
ficient and  trustworthy  factors  of  safety. 

23.  The  three  important  factors  by  which  the  degree  of  stabil- 
ity may  be  determined  are  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  ship;  the 
center  of  buoyancy,  which  is  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  displaced 
water;  and  the  metacentre. 


SUMMARY. 

24.  The    CENTER   OF    GRAVITY    is   the    point    at    which    the 
whole  weight  of  the  ship  and  its  lading  may  be  said  to  be  concen- 
trated,   and   is   fixed    for   any   particular   condition.      It   moves   only 
when  some  change  occurs  in  the  position  of  the  weights. 

25.  The    CENTER    OF   BUOYANCY    is    the    center    of    gravity 
of  the  displaced  water  or  of   the   cavity  which  would  exist   if  the 
surrounding  water  was  solidified  and  the  ship  removed.     It  changes 
with  every  change  of  water-line  whether  caused  by  alterations  in 
draught   or  trim,   traveling  out   toward   the   submerging   side  when 
the  vessel  heels. 

26.  The    METACENTRE    is   the    point    at   which    the    vertical, 
in  passing   through   the   center   of   buoyancy  while   at  a   moderate 
angle  of  heel,  intersects  the  vertical    passed     through     that     point, 
while  the  ship  was  on  an  even  keel.     In    some    vessels    the    meta- 
centre remains  the  same  even  for  considerable  angles  of  heel. 

27.  The  MOMENT  of  a  force  is  the  weight  or  force  multiplied 
by  its  leverage.     A  hundredweight  at  the  end  of  a  10  foot  capstan 
bar   would   have   the   same   moment,    and   produce   the    same    effect 
as  2  cwt.  in  the  middle  (or  5  feet  from  the  end). 

28.  A  MECHANICAL,   COUPLE   is  two  equal  forces   acting  in 
opposite  directions;   and   the   MOMENT  of  the   COUPLE   is  one   of 
these    forces   multiplied    by   the   horizontal    distance    between    their 
lines  of  action.     In  a  stable   ship   floating   freely,   or  in  EQUILIB- 
RIUM,  the   center  of   buoyancy   and   the   center  of  gravity   will   be 
found  in  the  same  vertical  line  exactly  balancing  each   other;   but 
the  instant  the  ship  begins  to  heel   under  wind  pressure,   or  other 
external  force,  the  former  moves  out  towards  the  submerging  side. 
With  gravity  acting   downwards  and   buoyancy  upwards,   a   couple 
is  formed  which  tends  to  return  the  ship  to  the  upright.     At  moder- 
ate angles  of  heel  the  line  through  the  center  of  buoyancy  passes 
through    the    metacentre,    from    which    the    term    METACENTRIC 
STABILITY    is    derived.      Although    the    method    is    used    only    for 
moderate    angles   of   heel,    the    position    of   the    C.    B.    can    be    cal- 
culated by  the  Naval  Architect  for  all  angles  of  heel,  and  the  couple 
formed  by  weight   (or  gravity)   and  buoyancy  will  always  create  a 
righting  couple  in  a  stable  ship.     The  horizontal   distance  between 
the    two    forces    is    the    LEVER    OF    STABILITY,    or    RIGHTING 
LEVER   in    a    stable    ship.      If   the    center   of   gravity    is    too    high 
(above    metacentre),    the    couple    becomes    a    CAPSIZING    or    UP- 
SETTING COUPLE. 


THE     MERCHANT     MARINE     MANUAL 


293 


29.  CURVES  OF  STABILITY,  a  diagram  of  which  should  al- 
ways  be   supplied  by  the   builder,   will   show   in   graphic   form    the 
righting   lever   for   various   conditions   at    different   angles    of   heel, 
and  this  lever  multiplied  by  the  weight  of  the  ship  gives  the  right- 
ing moment. 

30.  The  lower  the  center  of  gravity  the  greater  the   stability, 
and    of   two   vessels    otherwise    similar,    the    one   with    the    greater 
beam  will  be  the  more  stable.     A  ship  may  be   fairly  stable  when 
upright   or  at  a  small   angle   of  heel   and  yet   possess   no   righting 
lever  if  forced  over  to  a  considerable    angle.     Consequently,     it    is 
important  that  a  ship  should  have  a  good  range  of  stability. 


4-' 


CURVES    OF    STABILITY. 


\ 


\ 


So' 


SO* 


Curves  for  Nos.  1  and  2  show  the  same  vessel  under  identical 
conditions,  except  that  in  the  second  case,  some  lee  ports  on  the 
main  deck  have  been  left  open.  With  its  lee  side  intact  it  has  the 
good  levers  and  range  shown  in  Curve  1,  and  the  drop  in  Curve  2 
denotes  sudden  loss  of  freeboard  and  consequently  of  stability, 
due  to  the  entry  of  the  water.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the 
range,  which  is  now  dangerously  reduced.  Curve  3  shows  a  ves- 
sel of  good  metacentric  height  and  levers,  up  to  moderate  angles 
of  heel;  but  it  will  neither  be  as  safe,  nor  as  easy  in  its  move- 
ments as  a  vessel  would  be  with  Curve  4,  where  the  righting  levers 
increase  up  to  an  angle  which  it  is  practically  certain  the  vessel 
will  never  reach;  while  they  decrease  as  the  vessel  approaches  the 
upright,  thus  reducing  the  angular  velocity  and  momentum  which 
may  carry  it  beyond  the  perpendicular. 


In  paper  covers  $1.00  Cotton  Duck  covers  $2.00 

A  STANDARD  REFERENCE  BOOK 

FOR 

SAILORS  AND  YACHTSMEN 
THE 

Yachtsman's  Annual  Guide 

and  Nautical  Calendar 

More  than  400  pages,  size  7  x  10  inches. 
Filled  with  nautical  information  of  all  kinds. 

Courses  and  Sailing  Directions  from  the  River  St. 
Lawrence  to  the  Rio  Grande.  Charts  of  Harbors  and 
navigating  information.  Flags  of  all  nations  in  colors. 
Burgees  in  colors  and  Roster  of  Officers  of  Yacht  Clubs. 
Knots  and  Splices.  Signaling  in  all  its  branches. 

Sold  with  our  guarantee  "your  money  back  if  you 


From  nautical  dealers  or  by  mail  to 

THE  YACHTSMAN'S  GUIDE,  Boston,  Mass. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  5O  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


APR    28  194) 

orn        A      IQA^ 

,  f\ 

o  L  r        4     1  WO 

^ 

$S* 

JAN  21  1? 

nci  Jfe  1948            : 

. 

i 

.   ^    ., 

AM.**(flllC 

YB  04311 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


